rsyslog - Modifications to rsyslog---see v3-stable-kaz branch

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author	Rainer Gerhards <rgerhards@adiscon.com>	2013-07-04 11:18:28 +0200
committer	Rainer Gerhards <rgerhards@adiscon.com>	2013-07-04 11:18:28 +0200
commit	7be0940109292519d65c3e4b9567aacd416768f8 (patch)
tree	51d619572318e697f0ac949c8834d840bc133892 /plugins/omelasticsearch/omelasticsearch.c
parent	2622100ac57c85fbec2b5a06c98532a8126c0e59 (diff)
parent	44bdfdcf1d71fe1b5a1bf68a3fd1f476ec95c75c (diff)
download	rsyslog-7be0940109292519d65c3e4b9567aacd416768f8.tar.gz rsyslog-7be0940109292519d65c3e4b9567aacd416768f8.tar.bz2 rsyslog-7be0940109292519d65c3e4b9567aacd416768f8.zip

Merge branch 'v7-stable-hidden' into v7-stable

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This is gawk.info, produced by makeinfo version 4.13 from gawk.texi. INFO-DIR-SECTION Text creation and manipulation START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * Gawk: (gawk). A text scanning and processing language. END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY INFO-DIR-SECTION Individual utilities START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * awk: (gawk)Invoking gawk. Text scanning and processing. END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY Copyright (C) 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011 Free Software Foundation, Inc. This is Edition 4 of `GAWK: Effective AWK Programming: A User's Guide for GNU Awk', for the 4.0.0 (or later) version of the GNU implementation of AWK. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being "GNU General Public License", the Front-Cover texts being (a) (see below), and with the Back-Cover Texts being (b) (see below). A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License". a. "A GNU Manual" b. "You have the freedom to copy and modify this GNU manual. Buying copies from the FSF supports it in developing GNU and promoting software freedom." File: gawk.info, Node: Top, Next: Foreword, Up: (dir) General Introduction ******************** This file documents `awk', a program that you can use to select particular records in a file and perform operations upon them. Copyright (C) 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011 Free Software Foundation, Inc. This is Edition 4 of `GAWK: Effective AWK Programming: A User's Guide for GNU Awk', for the 4.0.0 (or later) version of the GNU implementation of AWK. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being "GNU General Public License", the Front-Cover texts being (a) (see below), and with the Back-Cover Texts being (b) (see below). A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License". a. "A GNU Manual" b. "You have the freedom to copy and modify this GNU manual. Buying copies from the FSF supports it in developing GNU and promoting software freedom." * Menu: * Foreword:: Some nice words about this Info file. * Preface:: What this Info file is about; brief history and acknowledgments. * Getting Started:: A basic introduction to using `awk'. How to run an `awk' program. Command-line syntax. * Invoking Gawk:: How to run `gawk'. * Regexp:: All about matching things using regular expressions. * Reading Files:: How to read files and manipulate fields. * Printing:: How to print using `awk'. Describes the `print' and `printf' statements. Also describes redirection of output. * Expressions:: Expressions are the basic building blocks of statements. * Patterns and Actions:: Overviews of patterns and actions. * Arrays:: The description and use of arrays. Also includes array-oriented control statements. * Functions:: Built-in and user-defined functions. * Internationalization:: Getting `gawk' to speak your language. * Advanced Features:: Stuff for advanced users, specific to `gawk'. * Library Functions:: A Library of `awk' Functions. * Sample Programs:: Many `awk' programs with complete explanations. * Debugger:: The `dgawk' debugger. * Language History:: The evolution of the `awk' language. * Installation:: Installing `gawk' under various operating systems. * Notes:: Notes about `gawk' extensions and possible future work. * Basic Concepts:: A very quick introduction to programming concepts. * Glossary:: An explanation of some unfamiliar terms. * Copying:: Your right to copy and distribute `gawk'. * GNU Free Documentation License:: The license for this Info file. * Index:: Concept and Variable Index. * History:: The history of `gawk' and `awk'. * Names:: What name to use to find `awk'. * This Manual:: Using this Info file. Includes sample input files that you can use. * Conventions:: Typographical Conventions. * Manual History:: Brief history of the GNU project and this Info file. * How To Contribute:: Helping to save the world. * Acknowledgments:: Acknowledgments. * Running gawk:: How to run `gawk' programs; includes command-line syntax. * One-shot:: Running a short throwaway `awk' program. * Read Terminal:: Using no input files (input from terminal instead). * Long:: Putting permanent `awk' programs in files. * Executable Scripts:: Making self-contained `awk' programs. * Comments:: Adding documentation to `gawk' programs. * Quoting:: More discussion of shell quoting issues. * DOS Quoting:: Quoting in Windows Batch Files. * Sample Data Files:: Sample data files for use in the `awk' programs illustrated in this Info file. * Very Simple:: A very simple example. * Two Rules:: A less simple one-line example using two rules. * More Complex:: A more complex example. * Statements/Lines:: Subdividing or combining statements into lines. * Other Features:: Other Features of `awk'. * When:: When to use `gawk' and when to use other things. * Command Line:: How to run `awk'. * Options:: Command-line options and their meanings. * Other Arguments:: Input file names and variable assignments. * Naming Standard Input:: How to specify standard input with other files. * Environment Variables:: The environment variables `gawk' uses. * AWKPATH Variable:: Searching directories for `awk' programs. * Other Environment Variables:: The environment variables. * Exit Status:: `gawk''s exit status. * Include Files:: Including other files into your program. * Obsolete:: Obsolete Options and/or features. * Undocumented:: Undocumented Options and Features. * Regexp Usage:: How to Use Regular Expressions. * Escape Sequences:: How to write nonprinting characters. * Regexp Operators:: Regular Expression Operators. * Bracket Expressions:: What can go between `[...]'. * GNU Regexp Operators:: Operators specific to GNU software. * Case-sensitivity:: How to do case-insensitive matching. * Leftmost Longest:: How much text matches. * Computed Regexps:: Using Dynamic Regexps. * Locales:: How the locale affects things. * Records:: Controlling how data is split into records. * Fields:: An introduction to fields. * Nonconstant Fields:: Nonconstant Field Numbers. * Changing Fields:: Changing the Contents of a Field. * Field Separators:: The field separator and how to change it. * Default Field Splitting:: How fields are normally separated. * Regexp Field Splitting:: Using regexps as the field separator. * Single Character Fields:: Making each character a separate field. * Command Line Field Separator:: Setting `FS' from the command-line. * Field Splitting Summary:: Some final points and a summary table. * Constant Size:: Reading constant width data. * Splitting By Content:: Defining Fields By Content * Multiple Line:: Reading multi-line records. * Getline:: Reading files under explicit program control using the `getline' function. * Plain Getline:: Using `getline' with no arguments. * Getline/Variable:: Using `getline' into a variable. * Getline/File:: Using `getline' from a file. * Getline/Variable/File:: Using `getline' into a variable from a file. * Getline/Pipe:: Using `getline' from a pipe. * Getline/Variable/Pipe:: Using `getline' into a variable from a pipe. * Getline/Coprocess:: Using `getline' from a coprocess. * Getline/Variable/Coprocess:: Using `getline' into a variable from a coprocess. * Getline Notes:: Important things to know about `getline'. * Getline Summary:: Summary of `getline' Variants. * Command line directories:: What happens if you put a directory on the command line. * Print:: The `print' statement. * Print Examples:: Simple examples of `print' statements. * Output Separators:: The output separators and how to change them. * OFMT:: Controlling Numeric Output With `print'. * Printf:: The `printf' statement. * Basic Printf:: Syntax of the `printf' statement. * Control Letters:: Format-control letters. * Format Modifiers:: Format-specification modifiers. * Printf Examples:: Several examples. * Redirection:: How to redirect output to multiple files and pipes. * Special Files:: File name interpretation in `gawk'. `gawk' allows access to inherited file descriptors. * Special FD:: Special files for I/O. * Special Network:: Special files for network communications. * Special Caveats:: Things to watch out for. * Close Files And Pipes:: Closing Input and Output Files and Pipes. * Values:: Constants, Variables, and Regular Expressions. * Constants:: String, numeric and regexp constants. * Scalar Constants:: Numeric and string constants. * Nondecimal-numbers:: What are octal and hex numbers. * Regexp Constants:: Regular Expression constants. * Using Constant Regexps:: When and how to use a regexp constant. * Variables:: Variables give names to values for later use. * Using Variables:: Using variables in your programs. * Assignment Options:: Setting variables on the command-line and a summary of command-line syntax. This is an advanced method of input. * Conversion:: The conversion of strings to numbers and vice versa. * All Operators:: `gawk''s operators. * Arithmetic Ops:: Arithmetic operations (`+', `-', etc.) * Concatenation:: Concatenating strings. * Assignment Ops:: Changing the value of a variable or a field. * Increment Ops:: Incrementing the numeric value of a variable. * Truth Values and Conditions:: Testing for true and false. * Truth Values:: What is ``true'' and what is ``false''. * Typing and Comparison:: How variables acquire types and how this affects comparison of numbers and strings with `<', etc. * Variable Typing:: String type versus numeric type. * Comparison Operators:: The comparison operators. * POSIX String Comparison:: String comparison with POSIX rules. * Boolean Ops:: Combining comparison expressions using boolean operators `||' (``or''), `&&' (``and'') and `!' (``not''). * Conditional Exp:: Conditional expressions select between two subexpressions under control of a third subexpression. * Function Calls:: A function call is an expression. * Precedence:: How various operators nest. * Pattern Overview:: What goes into a pattern. * Regexp Patterns:: Using regexps as patterns. * Expression Patterns:: Any expression can be used as a pattern. * Ranges:: Pairs of patterns specify record ranges. * BEGIN/END:: Specifying initialization and cleanup rules. * Using BEGIN/END:: How and why to use BEGIN/END rules. * I/O And BEGIN/END:: I/O issues in BEGIN/END rules. * BEGINFILE/ENDFILE:: Two special patterns for advanced control. * Empty:: The empty pattern, which matches every record. * Using Shell Variables:: How to use shell variables with `awk'. * Action Overview:: What goes into an action. * Statements:: Describes the various control statements in detail. * If Statement:: Conditionally execute some `awk' statements. * While Statement:: Loop until some condition is satisfied. * Do Statement:: Do specified action while looping until some condition is satisfied. * For Statement:: Another looping statement, that provides initialization and increment clauses. * Switch Statement:: Switch/case evaluation for conditional execution of statements based on a value. * Break Statement:: Immediately exit the innermost enclosing loop. * Continue Statement:: Skip to the end of the innermost enclosing loop. * Next Statement:: Stop processing the current input record. * Nextfile Statement:: Stop processing the current file. * Exit Statement:: Stop execution of `awk'. * Built-in Variables:: Summarizes the built-in variables. * User-modified:: Built-in variables that you change to control `awk'. * Auto-set:: Built-in variables where `awk' gives you information. * ARGC and ARGV:: Ways to use `ARGC' and `ARGV'. * Array Basics:: The basics of arrays. * Array Intro:: Introduction to Arrays * Reference to Elements:: How to examine one element of an array. * Assigning Elements:: How to change an element of an array. * Array Example:: Basic Example of an Array * Scanning an Array:: A variation of the `for' statement. It loops through the indices of an array's existing elements. * Delete:: The `delete' statement removes an element from an array. * Numeric Array Subscripts:: How to use numbers as subscripts in `awk'. * Uninitialized Subscripts:: Using Uninitialized variables as subscripts. * Multi-dimensional:: Emulating multidimensional arrays in `awk'. * Multi-scanning:: Scanning multidimensional arrays. * Arrays of Arrays:: True multidimensional arrays. * Built-in:: Summarizes the built-in functions. * Calling Built-in:: How to call built-in functions. * Numeric Functions:: Functions that work with numbers, including `int()', `sin()' and `rand()'. * String Functions:: Functions for string manipulation, such as `split()', `match()' and `sprintf()'. * Gory Details:: More than you want to know about `\' and `&' with `sub()', `gsub()', and `gensub()'. * I/O Functions:: Functions for files and shell commands. * Time Functions:: Functions for dealing with timestamps. * Bitwise Functions:: Functions for bitwise operations. * Type Functions:: Functions for type information. * I18N Functions:: Functions for string translation. * User-defined:: Describes User-defined functions in detail. * Definition Syntax:: How to write definitions and what they mean. * Function Example:: An example function definition and what it does. * Function Caveats:: Things to watch out for. * Calling A Function:: Don't use spaces. * Variable Scope:: Controlling variable scope. * Pass By Value/Reference:: Passing parameters. * Return Statement:: Specifying the value a function returns. * Dynamic Typing:: How variable types can change at runtime. * Indirect Calls:: Choosing the function to call at runtime. * I18N and L10N:: Internationalization and Localization. * Explaining gettext:: How GNU `gettext' works. * Programmer i18n:: Features for the programmer. * Translator i18n:: Features for the translator. * String Extraction:: Extracting marked strings. * Printf Ordering:: Rearranging `printf' arguments. * I18N Portability:: `awk'-level portability issues. * I18N Example:: A simple i18n example. * Gawk I18N:: `gawk' is also internationalized. * Nondecimal Data:: Allowing nondecimal input data. * Array Sorting:: Facilities for controlling array traversal and sorting arrays. * Controlling Array Traversal:: How to use PROCINFO["sorted_in"]. * Controlling Scanning With A Function:: Using a function to control scanning. * Controlling Scanning:: Controlling the order in which arrays are scanned. * Array Sorting Functions:: How to use `asort()' and `asorti()'. * Two-way I/O:: Two-way communications with another process. * TCP/IP Networking:: Using `gawk' for network programming. * Profiling:: Profiling your `awk' programs. * Library Names:: How to best name private global variables in library functions. * General Functions:: Functions that are of general use. * Strtonum Function:: A replacement for the built-in `strtonum()' function. * Assert Function:: A function for assertions in `awk' programs. * Round Function:: A function for rounding if `sprintf()' does not do it correctly. * Cliff Random Function:: The Cliff Random Number Generator. * Ordinal Functions:: Functions for using characters as numbers and vice versa. * Join Function:: A function to join an array into a string. * Gettimeofday Function:: A function to get formatted times. * Data File Management:: Functions for managing command-line data files. * Filetrans Function:: A function for handling data file transitions. * Rewind Function:: A function for rereading the current file. * File Checking:: Checking that data files are readable. * Empty Files:: Checking for zero-length files. * Ignoring Assigns:: Treating assignments as file names. * Getopt Function:: A function for processing command-line arguments. * Passwd Functions:: Functions for getting user information. * Group Functions:: Functions for getting group information. * Walking Arrays:: A function to walk arrays of arrays. * Running Examples:: How to run these examples. * Clones:: Clones of common utilities. * Cut Program:: The `cut' utility. * Egrep Program:: The `egrep' utility. * Id Program:: The `id' utility. * Split Program:: The `split' utility. * Tee Program:: The `tee' utility. * Uniq Program:: The `uniq' utility. * Wc Program:: The `wc' utility. * Miscellaneous Programs:: Some interesting `awk' programs. * Dupword Program:: Finding duplicated words in a document. * Alarm Program:: An alarm clock. * Translate Program:: A program similar to the `tr' utility. * Labels Program:: Printing mailing labels. * Word Sorting:: A program to produce a word usage count. * History Sorting:: Eliminating duplicate entries from a history file. * Extract Program:: Pulling out programs from Texinfo source files. * Simple Sed:: A Simple Stream Editor. * Igawk Program:: A wrapper for `awk' that includes files. * Anagram Program:: Finding anagrams from a dictionary. * Signature Program:: People do amazing things with too much time on their hands. * Debugging:: Introduction to `dgawk'. * Debugging Concepts:: Debugging In General. * Debugging Terms:: Additional Debugging Concepts. * Awk Debugging:: Awk Debugging. * Sample dgawk session:: Sample `dgawk' session. * dgawk invocation:: `dgawk' Invocation. * Finding The Bug:: Finding The Bug. * List of Debugger Commands:: Main `dgawk' Commands. * Breakpoint Control:: Control of breakpoints. * Dgawk Execution Control:: Control of execution. * Viewing And Changing Data:: Viewing and changing data. * Dgawk Stack:: Dealing with the stack. * Dgawk Info:: Obtaining information about the program and the debugger state. * Miscellaneous Dgawk Commands:: Miscellaneous Commands. * Readline Support:: Readline Support. * Dgawk Limitations:: Limitations and future plans. * V7/SVR3.1:: The major changes between V7 and System V Release 3.1. * SVR4:: Minor changes between System V Releases 3.1 and 4. * POSIX:: New features from the POSIX standard. * BTL:: New features from Brian Kernighan's version of `awk'. * POSIX/GNU:: The extensions in `gawk' not in POSIX `awk'. * Common Extensions:: Common Extensions Summary. * Contributors:: The major contributors to `gawk'. * Gawk Distribution:: What is in the `gawk' distribution. * Getting:: How to get the distribution. * Extracting:: How to extract the distribution. * Distribution contents:: What is in the distribution. * Unix Installation:: Installing `gawk' under various versions of Unix. * Quick Installation:: Compiling `gawk' under Unix. * Additional Configuration Options:: Other compile-time options. * Configuration Philosophy:: How it's all supposed to work. * Non-Unix Installation:: Installation on Other Operating Systems. * PC Installation:: Installing and Compiling `gawk' on MS-DOS and OS/2. * PC Binary Installation:: Installing a prepared distribution. * PC Compiling:: Compiling `gawk' for MS-DOS, Windows32, and OS/2. * PC Testing:: Testing `gawk' on PC systems. * PC Using:: Running `gawk' on MS-DOS, Windows32 and OS/2. * Cygwin:: Building and running `gawk' for Cygwin. * MSYS:: Using `gawk' In The MSYS Environment. * VMS Installation:: Installing `gawk' on VMS. * VMS Compilation:: How to compile `gawk' under VMS. * VMS Installation Details:: How to install `gawk' under VMS. * VMS Running:: How to run `gawk' under VMS. * VMS Old Gawk:: An old version comes with some VMS systems. * Bugs:: Reporting Problems and Bugs. * Other Versions:: Other freely available `awk' implementations. * Compatibility Mode:: How to disable certain `gawk' extensions. * Additions:: Making Additions To `gawk'. * Accessing The Source:: Accessing the Git repository. * Adding Code:: Adding code to the main body of `gawk'. * New Ports:: Porting `gawk' to a new operating system. * Dynamic Extensions:: Adding new built-in functions to `gawk'. * Internals:: A brief look at some `gawk' internals. * Plugin License:: A note about licensing. * Sample Library:: A example of new functions. * Internal File Description:: What the new functions will do. * Internal File Ops:: The code for internal file operations. * Using Internal File Ops:: How to use an external extension. * Future Extensions:: New features that may be implemented one day. * Basic High Level:: The high level view. * Basic Data Typing:: A very quick intro to data types. * Floating Point Issues:: Stuff to know about floating-point numbers. * String Conversion Precision:: The String Value Can Lie. * Unexpected Results:: Floating Point Numbers Are Not Abstract Numbers. * POSIX Floating Point Problems:: Standards Versus Existing Practice. To Miriam, for making me complete. To Chana, for the joy you bring us. To Rivka, for the exponential increase. To Nachum, for the added dimension. To Malka, for the new beginning. File: gawk.info, Node: Foreword, Next: Preface, Prev: Top, Up: Top Foreword ******** Arnold Robbins and I are good friends. We were introduced in 1990 by circumstances--and our favorite programming language, AWK. The circumstances started a couple of years earlier. I was working at a new job and noticed an unplugged Unix computer sitting in the corner. No one knew how to use it, and neither did I. However, a couple of days later it was running, and I was `root' and the one-and-only user. That day, I began the transition from statistician to Unix programmer. On one of many trips to the library or bookstore in search of books on Unix, I found the gray AWK book, a.k.a. Aho, Kernighan and Weinberger, `The AWK Programming Language', Addison-Wesley, 1988. AWK's simple programming paradigm--find a pattern in the input and then perform an action--often reduced complex or tedious data manipulations to few lines of code. I was excited to try my hand at programming in AWK. Alas, the `awk' on my computer was a limited version of the language described in the AWK book. I discovered that my computer had "old `awk'" and the AWK book described "new `awk'." I learned that this was typical; the old version refused to step aside or relinquish its name. If a system had a new `awk', it was invariably called `nawk', and few systems had it. The best way to get a new `awk' was to `ftp' the source code for `gawk' from `prep.ai.mit.edu'. `gawk' was a version of new `awk' written by David Trueman and Arnold, and available under the GNU General Public License. (Incidentally, it's no longer difficult to find a new `awk'. `gawk' ships with GNU/Linux, and you can download binaries or source code for almost any system; my wife uses `gawk' on her VMS box.) My Unix system started out unplugged from the wall; it certainly was not plugged into a network. So, oblivious to the existence of `gawk' and the Unix community in general, and desiring a new `awk', I wrote my own, called `mawk'. Before I was finished I knew about `gawk', but it was too late to stop, so I eventually posted to a `comp.sources' newsgroup. A few days after my posting, I got a friendly email from Arnold introducing himself. He suggested we share design and algorithms and attached a draft of the POSIX standard so that I could update `mawk' to support language extensions added after publication of the AWK book. Frankly, if our roles had been reversed, I would not have been so open and we probably would have never met. I'm glad we did meet. He is an AWK expert's AWK expert and a genuinely nice person. Arnold contributes significant amounts of his expertise and time to the Free Software Foundation. This book is the `gawk' reference manual, but at its core it is a book about AWK programming that will appeal to a wide audience. It is a definitive reference to the AWK language as defined by the 1987 Bell Laboratories release and codified in the 1992 POSIX Utilities standard. On the other hand, the novice AWK programmer can study a wealth of practical programs that emphasize the power of AWK's basic idioms: data driven control-flow, pattern matching with regular expressions, and associative arrays. Those looking for something new can try out `gawk''s interface to network protocols via special `/inet' files. The programs in this book make clear that an AWK program is typically much smaller and faster to develop than a counterpart written in C. Consequently, there is often a payoff to prototype an algorithm or design in AWK to get it running quickly and expose problems early. Often, the interpreted performance is adequate and the AWK prototype becomes the product. The new `pgawk' (profiling `gawk'), produces program execution counts. I recently experimented with an algorithm that for n lines of input, exhibited ~ C n^2 performance, while theory predicted ~ C n log n behavior. A few minutes poring over the `awkprof.out' profile pinpointed the problem to a single line of code. `pgawk' is a welcome addition to my programmer's toolbox. Arnold has distilled over a decade of experience writing and using AWK programs, and developing `gawk', into this book. If you use AWK or want to learn how, then read this book. Michael Brennan Author of `mawk' March, 2001 File: gawk.info, Node: Preface, Next: Getting Started, Prev: Foreword, Up: Top Preface ******* Several kinds of tasks occur repeatedly when working with text files. You might want to extract certain lines and discard the rest. Or you may need to make changes wherever certain patterns appear, but leave the rest of the file alone. Writing single-use programs for these tasks in languages such as C, C++, or Java is time-consuming and inconvenient. Such jobs are often easier with `awk'. The `awk' utility interprets a special-purpose programming language that makes it easy to handle simple data-reformatting jobs. The GNU implementation of `awk' is called `gawk'; it is fully compatible with the POSIX(1) specification of the `awk' language and with the Unix version of `awk' maintained by Brian Kernighan. This means that all properly written `awk' programs should work with `gawk'. Thus, we usually don't distinguish between `gawk' and other `awk' implementations. Using `awk' allows you to: * Manage small, personal databases * Generate reports * Validate data * Produce indexes and perform other document preparation tasks * Experiment with algorithms that you can adapt later to other computer languages In addition, `gawk' provides facilities that make it easy to: * Extract bits and pieces of data for processing * Sort data * Perform simple network communications This Info file teaches you about the `awk' language and how you can use it effectively. You should already be familiar with basic system commands, such as `cat' and `ls',(2) as well as basic shell facilities, such as input/output (I/O) redirection and pipes. Implementations of the `awk' language are available for many different computing environments. This Info file, while describing the `awk' language in general, also describes the particular implementation of `awk' called `gawk' (which stands for "GNU awk"). `gawk' runs on a broad range of Unix systems, ranging from Intel(R)-architecture PC-based computers up through large-scale systems, such as Crays. `gawk' has also been ported to Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows (all versions) and OS/2 PCs, and VMS. (Some other, obsolete systems to which `gawk' was once ported are no longer supported and the code for those systems has been removed.) * Menu: * History:: The history of `gawk' and `awk'. * Names:: What name to use to find `awk'. * This Manual:: Using this Info file. Includes sample input files that you can use. * Conventions:: Typographical Conventions. * Manual History:: Brief history of the GNU project and this Info file. * How To Contribute:: Helping to save the world. * Acknowledgments:: Acknowledgments. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The 2008 POSIX standard can be found online at `http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/'. (2) These commands are available on POSIX-compliant systems, as well as on traditional Unix-based systems. If you are using some other operating system, you still need to be familiar with the ideas of I/O redirection and pipes. File: gawk.info, Node: History, Next: Names, Up: Preface History of `awk' and `gawk' =========================== Recipe For A Programming Language 1 part `egrep' 1 part `snobol' 2 parts `ed' 3 parts C Blend all parts well using `lex' and `yacc'. Document minimally and release. After eight years, add another part `egrep' and two more parts C. Document very well and release. The name `awk' comes from the initials of its designers: Alfred V. Aho, Peter J. Weinberger and Brian W. Kernighan. The original version of `awk' was written in 1977 at AT&T Bell Laboratories. In 1985, a new version made the programming language more powerful, introducing user-defined functions, multiple input streams, and computed regular expressions. This new version became widely available with Unix System V Release 3.1 (1987). The version in System V Release 4 (1989) added some new features and cleaned up the behavior in some of the "dark corners" of the language. The specification for `awk' in the POSIX Command Language and Utilities standard further clarified the language. Both the `gawk' designers and the original Bell Laboratories `awk' designers provided feedback for the POSIX specification. Paul Rubin wrote the GNU implementation, `gawk', in 1986. Jay Fenlason completed it, with advice from Richard Stallman. John Woods contributed parts of the code as well. In 1988 and 1989, David Trueman, with help from me, thoroughly reworked `gawk' for compatibility with the newer `awk'. Circa 1994, I became the primary maintainer. Current development focuses on bug fixes, performance improvements, standards compliance, and occasionally, new features. In May of 1997, Ju"rgen Kahrs felt the need for network access from `awk', and with a little help from me, set about adding features to do this for `gawk'. At that time, he also wrote the bulk of `TCP/IP Internetworking with `gawk'' (a separate document, available as part of the `gawk' distribution). His code finally became part of the main `gawk' distribution with `gawk' version 3.1. John Haque rewrote the `gawk' internals, in the process providing an `awk'-level debugger. This version became available as `gawk' version 4.0, in 2011. *Note Contributors::, for a complete list of those who made important contributions to `gawk'. File: gawk.info, Node: Names, Next: This Manual, Prev: History, Up: Preface A Rose by Any Other Name ======================== The `awk' language has evolved over the years. Full details are provided in *note Language History::. The language described in this Info file is often referred to as "new `awk'" (`nawk'). Because of this, there are systems with multiple versions of `awk'. Some systems have an `awk' utility that implements the original version of the `awk' language and a `nawk' utility for the new version. Others have an `oawk' version for the "old `awk'" language and plain `awk' for the new one. Still others only have one version, which is usually the new one.(1) All in all, this makes it difficult for you to know which version of `awk' you should run when writing your programs. The best advice we can give here is to check your local documentation. Look for `awk', `oawk', and `nawk', as well as for `gawk'. It is likely that you already have some version of new `awk' on your system, which is what you should use when running your programs. (Of course, if you're reading this Info file, chances are good that you have `gawk'!) Throughout this Info file, whenever we refer to a language feature that should be available in any complete implementation of POSIX `awk', we simply use the term `awk'. When referring to a feature that is specific to the GNU implementation, we use the term `gawk'. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Often, these systems use `gawk' for their `awk' implementation! File: gawk.info, Node: This Manual, Next: Conventions, Prev: Names, Up: Preface Using This Book =============== The term `awk' refers to a particular program as well as to the language you use to tell this program what to do. When we need to be careful, we call the language "the `awk' language," and the program "the `awk' utility." This Info file explains both how to write programs in the `awk' language and how to run the `awk' utility. The term "`awk' program" refers to a program written by you in the `awk' programming language. Primarily, this Info file explains the features of `awk' as defined in the POSIX standard. It does so in the context of the `gawk' implementation. While doing so, it also attempts to describe important differences between `gawk' and other `awk' implementations.(1) Finally, any `gawk' features that are not in the POSIX standard for `awk' are noted. There are subsections labeled as *Advanced Notes* scattered throughout the Info file. They add a more complete explanation of points that are relevant, but not likely to be of interest on first reading. All appear in the index, under the heading "advanced features." Most of the time, the examples use complete `awk' programs. Some of the more advanced sections show only the part of the `awk' program that illustrates the concept currently being described. While this Info file is aimed principally at people who have not been exposed to `awk', there is a lot of information here that even the `awk' expert should find useful. In particular, the description of POSIX `awk' and the example programs in *note Library Functions::, and in *note Sample Programs::, should be of interest. *note Getting Started::, provides the essentials you need to know to begin using `awk'. *note Invoking Gawk::, describes how to run `gawk', the meaning of its command-line options, and how it finds `awk' program source files. *note Regexp::, introduces regular expressions in general, and in particular the flavors supported by POSIX `awk' and `gawk'. *note Reading Files::, describes how `awk' reads your data. It introduces the concepts of records and fields, as well as the `getline' command. I/O redirection is first described here. Network I/O is also briefly introduced here. *note Printing::, describes how `awk' programs can produce output with `print' and `printf'. *note Expressions::, describes expressions, which are the basic building blocks for getting most things done in a program. *note Patterns and Actions::, describes how to write patterns for matching records, actions for doing something when a record is matched, and the built-in variables `awk' and `gawk' use. *note Arrays::, covers `awk''s one-and-only data structure: associative arrays. Deleting array elements and whole arrays is also described, as well as sorting arrays in `gawk'. It also describes how `gawk' provides arrays of arrays. *note Functions::, describes the built-in functions `awk' and `gawk' provide, as well as how to define your own functions. *note Internationalization::, describes special features in `gawk' for translating program messages into different languages at runtime. *note Advanced Features::, describes a number of `gawk'-specific advanced features. Of particular note are the abilities to have two-way communications with another process, perform TCP/IP networking, and profile your `awk' programs. *note Library Functions::, and *note Sample Programs::, provide many sample `awk' programs. Reading them allows you to see `awk' solving real problems. *note Debugger::, describes the `awk' debugger, `dgawk'. *note Language History::, describes how the `awk' language has evolved since its first release to present. It also describes how `gawk' has acquired features over time. *note Installation::, describes how to get `gawk', how to compile it on POSIX-compatible systems, and how to compile and use it on different non-POSIX systems. It also describes how to report bugs in `gawk' and where to get other freely available `awk' implementations. *note Notes::, describes how to disable `gawk''s extensions, as well as how to contribute new code to `gawk', how to write extension libraries, and some possible future directions for `gawk' development. *note Basic Concepts::, provides some very cursory background material for those who are completely unfamiliar with computer programming. Also centralized there is a discussion of some of the issues surrounding floating-point numbers. The *note Glossary::, defines most, if not all, the significant terms used throughout the book. If you find terms that you aren't familiar with, try looking them up here. *note Copying::, and *note GNU Free Documentation License::, present the licenses that cover the `gawk' source code and this Info file, respectively. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) All such differences appear in the index under the entry "differences in `awk' and `gawk'." File: gawk.info, Node: Conventions, Next: Manual History, Prev: This Manual, Up: Preface Typographical Conventions ========================= This Info file is written in Texinfo (http://texinfo.org), the GNU documentation formatting language. A single Texinfo source file is used to produce both the printed and online versions of the documentation. This minor node briefly documents the typographical conventions used in Texinfo. Examples you would type at the command-line are preceded by the common shell primary and secondary prompts, `$' and `>'. Input that you type is shown `like this'. Output from the command is preceded by the glyph "-|". This typically represents the command's standard output. Error messages, and other output on the command's standard error, are preceded by the glyph "error-->". For example: $ echo hi on stdout -| hi on stdout $ echo hello on stderr 1>&2 error--> hello on stderr Characters that you type at the keyboard look `like this'. In particular, there are special characters called "control characters." These are characters that you type by holding down both the `CONTROL' key and another key, at the same time. For example, a `Ctrl-d' is typed by first pressing and holding the `CONTROL' key, next pressing the `d' key and finally releasing both keys. Dark Corners ............ Dark corners are basically fractal -- no matter how much you illuminate, there's always a smaller but darker one. Brian Kernighan Until the POSIX standard (and `GAWK: Effective AWK Programming'), many features of `awk' were either poorly documented or not documented at all. Descriptions of such features (often called "dark corners") are noted in this Info file with "(d.c.)". They also appear in the index under the heading "dark corner." As noted by the opening quote, though, any coverage of dark corners is, by definition, incomplete. Extensions to the standard `awk' language that are supported by more than one `awk' implementation are marked "(c.e.)," and listed in the index under "common extensions" and "extensions, common." File: gawk.info, Node: Manual History, Next: How To Contribute, Prev: Conventions, Up: Preface The GNU Project and This Book ============================= The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to the production and distribution of freely distributable software. It was founded by Richard M. Stallman, the author of the original Emacs editor. GNU Emacs is the most widely used version of Emacs today. The GNU(1) Project is an ongoing effort on the part of the Free Software Foundation to create a complete, freely distributable, POSIX-compliant computing environment. The FSF uses the "GNU General Public License" (GPL) to ensure that their software's source code is always available to the end user. A copy of the GPL is included for your reference (*note Copying::). The GPL applies to the C language source code for `gawk'. To find out more about the FSF and the GNU Project online, see the GNU Project's home page (http://www.gnu.org). This Info file may also be read from their web site (http://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/). A shell, an editor (Emacs), highly portable optimizing C, C++, and Objective-C compilers, a symbolic debugger and dozens of large and small utilities (such as `gawk'), have all been completed and are freely available. The GNU operating system kernel (the HURD), has been released but remains in an early stage of development. Until the GNU operating system is more fully developed, you should consider using GNU/Linux, a freely distributable, Unix-like operating system for Intel(R), Power Architecture, Sun SPARC, IBM S/390, and other systems.(2) Many GNU/Linux distributions are available for download from the Internet. (There are numerous other freely available, Unix-like operating systems based on the Berkeley Software Distribution, and some of them use recent versions of `gawk' for their versions of `awk'. NetBSD (http://www.netbsd.org), FreeBSD (http://www.freebsd.org), and OpenBSD (http://www.openbsd.org) are three of the most popular ones, but there are others.) The Info file itself has gone through a number of previous editions. Paul Rubin wrote the very first draft of `The GAWK Manual'; it was around 40 pages in size. Diane Close and Richard Stallman improved it, yielding a version that was around 90 pages long and barely described the original, "old" version of `awk'. I started working with that version in the fall of 1988. As work on it progressed, the FSF published several preliminary versions (numbered 0.X). In 1996, Edition 1.0 was released with `gawk' 3.0.0. The FSF published the first two editions under the title `The GNU Awk User's Guide'. This edition maintains the basic structure of the previous editions. For Edition 4.0, the content has been thoroughly reviewed and updated. All references to versions prior to 4.0 have been removed. Of significant note for this edition is *note Debugger::. `GAWK: Effective AWK Programming' will undoubtedly continue to evolve. An electronic version comes with the `gawk' distribution from the FSF. If you find an error in this Info file, please report it! *Note Bugs::, for information on submitting problem reports electronically. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) GNU stands for "GNU's not Unix." (2) The terminology "GNU/Linux" is explained in the *note Glossary::. File: gawk.info, Node: How To Contribute, Next: Acknowledgments, Prev: Manual History, Up: Preface How to Contribute ================= As the maintainer of GNU `awk', I once thought that I would be able to manage a collection of publicly available `awk' programs and I even solicited contributions. Making things available on the Internet helps keep the `gawk' distribution down to manageable size. The initial collection of material, such as it is, is still available at `ftp://ftp.freefriends.org/arnold/Awkstuff'. In the hopes of doing something more broad, I acquired the `awk.info' domain. However, I found that I could not dedicate enough time to managing contributed code: the archive did not grow and the domain went unused for several years. Fortunately, late in 2008, a volunteer took on the task of setting up an `awk'-related web site--`http://awk.info'--and did a very nice job. If you have written an interesting `awk' program, or have written a `gawk' extension that you would like to share with the rest of the world, please see `http://awk.info/?contribute' for how to contribute it to the web site. File: gawk.info, Node: Acknowledgments, Prev: How To Contribute, Up: Preface Acknowledgments =============== The initial draft of `The GAWK Manual' had the following acknowledgments: Many people need to be thanked for their assistance in producing this manual. Jay Fenlason contributed many ideas and sample programs. Richard Mlynarik and Robert Chassell gave helpful comments on drafts of this manual. The paper `A Supplemental Document for `awk'' by John W. Pierce of the Chemistry Department at UC San Diego, pinpointed several issues relevant both to `awk' implementation and to this manual, that would otherwise have escaped us. I would like to acknowledge Richard M. Stallman, for his vision of a better world and for his courage in founding the FSF and starting the GNU Project. Earlier editions of this Info file had the following acknowledgements: The following people (in alphabetical order) provided helpful comments on various versions of this book, Rick Adams, Dr. Nelson H.F. Beebe, Karl Berry, Dr. Michael Brennan, Rich Burridge, Claire Cloutier, Diane Close, Scott Deifik, Christopher ("Topher") Eliot, Jeffrey Friedl, Dr. Darrel Hankerson, Michal Jaegermann, Dr. Richard J. LeBlanc, Michael Lijewski, Pat Rankin, Miriam Robbins, Mary Sheehan, and Chuck Toporek. Robert J. Chassell provided much valuable advice on the use of Texinfo. He also deserves special thanks for convincing me _not_ to title this Info file `How To Gawk Politely'. Karl Berry helped significantly with the TeX part of Texinfo. I would like to thank Marshall and Elaine Hartholz of Seattle and Dr. Bert and Rita Schreiber of Detroit for large amounts of quiet vacation time in their homes, which allowed me to make significant progress on this Info file and on `gawk' itself. Phil Hughes of SSC contributed in a very important way by loaning me his laptop GNU/Linux system, not once, but twice, which allowed me to do a lot of work while away from home. David Trueman deserves special credit; he has done a yeoman job of evolving `gawk' so that it performs well and without bugs. Although he is no longer involved with `gawk', working with him on this project was a significant pleasure. The intrepid members of the GNITS mailing list, and most notably Ulrich Drepper, provided invaluable help and feedback for the design of the internationalization features. Chuck Toporek, Mary Sheehan, and Claire Coutier of O'Reilly & Associates contributed significant editorial help for this Info file for the 3.1 release of `gawk'. Dr. Nelson Beebe, Andreas Buening, Antonio Colombo, Stephen Davies, Scott Deifik, John H. DuBois III, Darrel Hankerson, Michal Jaegermann, Ju"rgen Kahrs, Dave Pitts, Stepan Kasal, Pat Rankin, Andrew Schorr, Corinna Vinschen, Anders Wallin, and Eli Zaretskii (in alphabetical order) make up the current `gawk' "crack portability team." Without their hard work and help, `gawk' would not be nearly the fine program it is today. It has been and continues to be a pleasure working with this team of fine people. John Haque contributed the modifications to convert `gawk' into a byte-code interpreter, including the debugger. Stephen Davies contributed to the effort to bring the byte-code changes into the mainstream code base. Efraim Yawitz contributed the initial text of *note Debugger::. I would like to thank Brian Kernighan for invaluable assistance during the testing and debugging of `gawk', and for ongoing help and advice in clarifying numerous points about the language. We could not have done nearly as good a job on either `gawk' or its documentation without his help. I must thank my wonderful wife, Miriam, for her patience through the many versions of this project, for her proofreading, and for sharing me with the computer. I would like to thank my parents for their love, and for the grace with which they raised and educated me. Finally, I also must acknowledge my gratitude to G-d, for the many opportunities He has sent my way, as well as for the gifts He has given me with which to take advantage of those opportunities. Arnold Robbins Nof Ayalon ISRAEL March, 2011 File: gawk.info, Node: Getting Started, Next: Invoking Gawk, Prev: Preface, Up: Top 1 Getting Started with `awk' **************************** The basic function of `awk' is to search files for lines (or other units of text) that contain certain patterns. When a line matches one of the patterns, `awk' performs specified actions on that line. `awk' keeps processing input lines in this way until it reaches the end of the input files. Programs in `awk' are different from programs in most other languages, because `awk' programs are "data-driven"; that is, you describe the data you want to work with and then what to do when you find it. Most other languages are "procedural"; you have to describe, in great detail, every step the program is to take. When working with procedural languages, it is usually much harder to clearly describe the data your program will process. For this reason, `awk' programs are often refreshingly easy to read and write. When you run `awk', you specify an `awk' "program" that tells `awk' what to do. The program consists of a series of "rules". (It may also contain "function definitions", an advanced feature that we will ignore for now. *Note User-defined::.) Each rule specifies one pattern to search for and one action to perform upon finding the pattern. Syntactically, a rule consists of a pattern followed by an action. The action is enclosed in curly braces to separate it from the pattern. Newlines usually separate rules. Therefore, an `awk' program looks like this: PATTERN { ACTION } PATTERN { ACTION } ... * Menu: * Running gawk:: How to run `gawk' programs; includes command-line syntax. * Sample Data Files:: Sample data files for use in the `awk' programs illustrated in this Info file. * Very Simple:: A very simple example. * Two Rules:: A less simple one-line example using two rules. * More Complex:: A more complex example. * Statements/Lines:: Subdividing or combining statements into lines. * Other Features:: Other Features of `awk'. * When:: When to use `gawk' and when to use other things. File: gawk.info, Node: Running gawk, Next: Sample Data Files, Up: Getting Started 1.1 How to Run `awk' Programs ============================= There are several ways to run an `awk' program. If the program is short, it is easiest to include it in the command that runs `awk', like this: awk 'PROGRAM' INPUT-FILE1 INPUT-FILE2 ... When the program is long, it is usually more convenient to put it in a file and run it with a command like this: awk -f PROGRAM-FILE INPUT-FILE1 INPUT-FILE2 ... This minor node discusses both mechanisms, along with several variations of each. * Menu: * One-shot:: Running a short throwaway `awk' program. * Read Terminal:: Using no input files (input from terminal instead). * Long:: Putting permanent `awk' programs in files. * Executable Scripts:: Making self-contained `awk' programs. * Comments:: Adding documentation to `gawk' programs. * Quoting:: More discussion of shell quoting issues. File: gawk.info, Node: One-shot, Next: Read Terminal, Up: Running gawk 1.1.1 One-Shot Throwaway `awk' Programs --------------------------------------- Once you are familiar with `awk', you will often type in simple programs the moment you want to use them. Then you can write the program as the first argument of the `awk' command, like this: awk 'PROGRAM' INPUT-FILE1 INPUT-FILE2 ... where PROGRAM consists of a series of PATTERNS and ACTIONS, as described earlier. This command format instructs the "shell", or command interpreter, to start `awk' and use the PROGRAM to process records in the input file(s). There are single quotes around PROGRAM so the shell won't interpret any `awk' characters as special shell characters. The quotes also cause the shell to treat all of PROGRAM as a single argument for `awk', and allow PROGRAM to be more than one line long. This format is also useful for running short or medium-sized `awk' programs from shell scripts, because it avoids the need for a separate file for the `awk' program. A self-contained shell script is more reliable because there are no other files to misplace. *note Very Simple::, presents several short, self-contained programs. File: gawk.info, Node: Read Terminal, Next: Long, Prev: One-shot, Up: Running gawk 1.1.2 Running `awk' Without Input Files --------------------------------------- You can also run `awk' without any input files. If you type the following command line: awk 'PROGRAM' `awk' applies the PROGRAM to the "standard input", which usually means whatever you type on the terminal. This continues until you indicate end-of-file by typing `Ctrl-d'. (On other operating systems, the end-of-file character may be different. For example, on OS/2, it is `Ctrl-z'.) As an example, the following program prints a friendly piece of advice (from Douglas Adams's `The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'), to keep you from worrying about the complexities of computer programming(1) (`BEGIN' is a feature we haven't discussed yet): $ awk "BEGIN { print \"Don't Panic!\" }" -| Don't Panic! This program does not read any input. The `\' before each of the inner double quotes is necessary because of the shell's quoting rules--in particular because it mixes both single quotes and double quotes.(2) This next simple `awk' program emulates the `cat' utility; it copies whatever you type on the keyboard to its standard output (why this works is explained shortly). $ awk '{ print }' Now is the time for all good men -| Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their country. -| to come to the aid of their country. Four score and seven years ago, ... -| Four score and seven years ago, ... What, me worry? -| What, me worry? Ctrl-d ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) If you use Bash as your shell, you should execute the command `set +H' before running this program interactively, to disable the C shell-style command history, which treats `!' as a special character. We recommend putting this command into your personal startup file. (2) Although we generally recommend the use of single quotes around the program text, double quotes are needed here in order to put the single quote into the message. File: gawk.info, Node: Long, Next: Executable Scripts, Prev: Read Terminal, Up: Running gawk 1.1.3 Running Long Programs --------------------------- Sometimes your `awk' programs can be very long. In this case, it is more convenient to put the program into a separate file. In order to tell `awk' to use that file for its program, you type: awk -f SOURCE-FILE INPUT-FILE1 INPUT-FILE2 ... The `-f' instructs the `awk' utility to get the `awk' program from the file SOURCE-FILE. Any file name can be used for SOURCE-FILE. For example, you could put the program: BEGIN { print "Don't Panic!" } into the file `advice'. Then this command: awk -f advice does the same thing as this one: awk "BEGIN { print \"Don't Panic!\" }" This was explained earlier (*note Read Terminal::). Note that you don't usually need single quotes around the file name that you specify with `-f', because most file names don't contain any of the shell's special characters. Notice that in `advice', the `awk' program did not have single quotes around it. The quotes are only needed for programs that are provided on the `awk' command line. If you want to clearly identify your `awk' program files as such, you can add the extension `.awk' to the file name. This doesn't affect the execution of the `awk' program but it does make "housekeeping" easier. File: gawk.info, Node: Executable Scripts, Next: Comments, Prev: Long, Up: Running gawk 1.1.4 Executable `awk' Programs ------------------------------- Once you have learned `awk', you may want to write self-contained `awk' scripts, using the `#!' script mechanism. You can do this on many systems.(1) For example, you could update the file `advice' to look like this: #! /bin/awk -f BEGIN { print "Don't Panic!" } After making this file executable (with the `chmod' utility), simply type `advice' at the shell and the system arranges to run `awk'(2) as if you had typed `awk -f advice': $ chmod +x advice $ advice -| Don't Panic! (We assume you have the current directory in your shell's search path variable [typically `$PATH']. If not, you may need to type `./advice' at the shell.) Self-contained `awk' scripts are useful when you want to write a program that users can invoke without their having to know that the program is written in `awk'. Advanced Notes: Portability Issues with `#!' -------------------------------------------- Some systems limit the length of the interpreter name to 32 characters. Often, this can be dealt with by using a symbolic link. You should not put more than one argument on the `#!' line after the path to `awk'. It does not work. The operating system treats the rest of the line as a single argument and passes it to `awk'. Doing this leads to confusing behavior--most likely a usage diagnostic of some sort from `awk'. Finally, the value of `ARGV[0]' (*note Built-in Variables::) varies depending upon your operating system. Some systems put `awk' there, some put the full pathname of `awk' (such as `/bin/awk'), and some put the name of your script (`advice'). (d.c.) Don't rely on the value of `ARGV[0]' to provide your script name. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The `#!' mechanism works on GNU/Linux systems, BSD-based systems and commercial Unix systems. (2) The line beginning with `#!' lists the full file name of an interpreter to run and an optional initial command-line argument to pass to that interpreter. The operating system then runs the interpreter with the given argument and the full argument list of the executed program. The first argument in the list is the full file name of the `awk' program. The rest of the argument list contains either options to `awk', or data files, or both. File: gawk.info, Node: Comments, Next: Quoting, Prev: Executable Scripts, Up: Running gawk 1.1.5 Comments in `awk' Programs -------------------------------- A "comment" is some text that is included in a program for the sake of human readers; it is not really an executable part of the program. Comments can explain what the program does and how it works. Nearly all programming languages have provisions for comments, as programs are typically hard to understand without them. In the `awk' language, a comment starts with the sharp sign character (`#') and continues to the end of the line. The `#' does not have to be the first character on the line. The `awk' language ignores the rest of a line following a sharp sign. For example, we could have put the following into `advice': # This program prints a nice friendly message. It helps # keep novice users from being afraid of the computer. BEGIN { print "Don't Panic!" } You can put comment lines into keyboard-composed throwaway `awk' programs, but this usually isn't very useful; the purpose of a comment is to help you or another person understand the program when reading it at a later time. CAUTION: As mentioned in *note One-shot::, you can enclose small to medium programs in single quotes, in order to keep your shell scripts self-contained. When doing so, _don't_ put an apostrophe (i.e., a single quote) into a comment (or anywhere else in your program). The shell interprets the quote as the closing quote for the entire program. As a result, usually the shell prints a message about mismatched quotes, and if `awk' actually runs, it will probably print strange messages about syntax errors. For example, look at the following: $ awk '{ print "hello" } # let's be cute' > The shell sees that the first two quotes match, and that a new quoted object begins at the end of the command line. It therefore prompts with the secondary prompt, waiting for more input. With Unix `awk', closing the quoted string produces this result: $ awk '{ print "hello" } # let's be cute' > ' error--> awk: can't open file be error--> source line number 1 Putting a backslash before the single quote in `let's' wouldn't help, since backslashes are not special inside single quotes. The next node describes the shell's quoting rules. File: gawk.info, Node: Quoting, Prev: Comments, Up: Running gawk 1.1.6 Shell-Quoting Issues -------------------------- * Menu: * DOS Quoting:: Quoting in Windows Batch Files. For short to medium length `awk' programs, it is most convenient to enter the program on the `awk' command line. This is best done by enclosing the entire program in single quotes. This is true whether you are entering the program interactively at the shell prompt, or writing it as part of a larger shell script: awk 'PROGRAM TEXT' INPUT-FILE1 INPUT-FILE2 ... Once you are working with the shell, it is helpful to have a basic knowledge of shell quoting rules. The following rules apply only to POSIX-compliant, Bourne-style shells (such as Bash, the GNU Bourne-Again Shell). If you use the C shell, you're on your own. * Quoted items can be concatenated with nonquoted items as well as with other quoted items. The shell turns everything into one argument for the command. * Preceding any single character with a backslash (`\') quotes that character. The shell removes the backslash and passes the quoted character on to the command. * Single quotes protect everything between the opening and closing quotes. The shell does no interpretation of the quoted text, passing it on verbatim to the command. It is _impossible_ to embed a single quote inside single-quoted text. Refer back to *note Comments::, for an example of what happens if you try. * Double quotes protect most things between the opening and closing quotes. The shell does at least variable and command substitution on the quoted text. Different shells may do additional kinds of processing on double-quoted text. Since certain characters within double-quoted text are processed by the shell, they must be "escaped" within the text. Of note are the characters `$', ``', `\', and `"', all of which must be preceded by a backslash within double-quoted text if they are to be passed on literally to the program. (The leading backslash is stripped first.) Thus, the example seen in *note Read Terminal::, is applicable: $ awk "BEGIN { print \"Don't Panic!\" }" -| Don't Panic! Note that the single quote is not special within double quotes. * Null strings are removed when they occur as part of a non-null command-line argument, while explicit non-null objects are kept. For example, to specify that the field separator `FS' should be set to the null string, use: awk -F "" 'PROGRAM' FILES # correct Don't use this: awk -F"" 'PROGRAM' FILES # wrong! In the second case, `awk' will attempt to use the text of the program as the value of `FS', and the first file name as the text of the program! This results in syntax errors at best, and confusing behavior at worst. Mixing single and double quotes is difficult. You have to resort to shell quoting tricks, like this: $ awk 'BEGIN { print "Here is a single quote <'"'"'>" }' -| Here is a single quote <'> This program consists of three concatenated quoted strings. The first and the third are single-quoted, the second is double-quoted. This can be "simplified" to: $ awk 'BEGIN { print "Here is a single quote <'\''>" }' -| Here is a single quote <'> Judge for yourself which of these two is the more readable. Another option is to use double quotes, escaping the embedded, `awk'-level double quotes: $ awk "BEGIN { print \"Here is a single quote <'>\" }" -| Here is a single quote <'> This option is also painful, because double quotes, backslashes, and dollar signs are very common in more advanced `awk' programs. A third option is to use the octal escape sequence equivalents (*note Escape Sequences::) for the single- and double-quote characters, like so: $ awk 'BEGIN { print "Here is a single quote <\47>" }' -| Here is a single quote <'> $ awk 'BEGIN { print "Here is a double quote <\42>" }' -| Here is a double quote <"> This works nicely, except that you should comment clearly what the escapes mean. A fourth option is to use command-line variable assignment, like this: $ awk -v sq="'" 'BEGIN { print "Here is a single quote <" sq ">" }' -| Here is a single quote <'> If you really need both single and double quotes in your `awk' program, it is probably best to move it into a separate file, where the shell won't be part of the picture, and you can say what you mean. File: gawk.info, Node: DOS Quoting, Up: Quoting 1.1.6.1 Quoting in MS-Windows Batch Files ......................................... Although this Info file generally only worries about POSIX systems and the POSIX shell, the following issue arises often enough for many users that it is worth addressing. The "shells" on Microsoft Windows systems use the double-quote character for quoting, and make it difficult or impossible to include an escaped double-quote character in a command-line script. The following example, courtesy of Jeroen Brink, shows how to print all lines in a file surrounded by double quotes: gawk "{ print \"\042\" $0 \"\042\" }" FILE File: gawk.info, Node: Sample Data Files, Next: Very Simple, Prev: Running gawk, Up: Getting Started 1.2 Data Files for the Examples =============================== Many of the examples in this Info file take their input from two sample data files. The first, `BBS-list', represents a list of computer bulletin board systems together with information about those systems. The second data file, called `inventory-shipped', contains information about monthly shipments. In both files, each line is considered to be one "record". In the data file `BBS-list', each record contains the name of a computer bulletin board, its phone number, the board's baud rate(s), and a code for the number of hours it is operational. An `A' in the last column means the board operates 24 hours a day. A `B' in the last column means the board only operates on evening and weekend hours. A `C' means the board operates only on weekends: aardvark 555-5553 1200/300 B alpo-net 555-3412 2400/1200/300 A barfly 555-7685 1200/300 A bites 555-1675 2400/1200/300 A camelot 555-0542 300 C core 555-2912 1200/300 C fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B foot 555-6699 1200/300 B macfoo 555-6480 1200/300 A sdace 555-3430 2400/1200/300 A sabafoo 555-2127 1200/300 C The data file `inventory-shipped' represents information about shipments during the year. Each record contains the month, the number of green crates shipped, the number of red boxes shipped, the number of orange bags shipped, and the number of blue packages shipped, respectively. There are 16 entries, covering the 12 months of last year and the first four months of the current year. Jan 13 25 15 115 Feb 15 32 24 226 Mar 15 24 34 228 Apr 31 52 63 420 May 16 34 29 208 Jun 31 42 75 492 Jul 24 34 67 436 Aug 15 34 47 316 Sep 13 55 37 277 Oct 29 54 68 525 Nov 20 87 82 577 Dec 17 35 61 401 Jan 21 36 64 620 Feb 26 58 80 652 Mar 24 75 70 495 Apr 21 70 74 514 If you are reading this in GNU Emacs using Info, you can copy the regions of text showing these sample files into your own test files. This way you can try out the examples shown in the remainder of this document. You do this by using the command `M-x write-region' to copy text from the Info file into a file for use with `awk' (*Note Miscellaneous File Operations: (emacs)Misc File Ops, for more information). Using this information, create your own `BBS-list' and `inventory-shipped' files and practice what you learn in this Info file. If you are using the stand-alone version of Info, see *note Extract Program::, for an `awk' program that extracts these data files from `gawk.texi', the Texinfo source file for this Info file. File: gawk.info, Node: Very Simple, Next: Two Rules, Prev: Sample Data Files, Up: Getting Started 1.3 Some Simple Examples ======================== The following command runs a simple `awk' program that searches the input file `BBS-list' for the character string `foo' (a grouping of characters is usually called a "string"; the term "string" is based on similar usage in English, such as "a string of pearls," or "a string of cars in a train"): awk '/foo/ { print $0 }' BBS-list When lines containing `foo' are found, they are printed because `print $0' means print the current line. (Just `print' by itself means the same thing, so we could have written that instead.) You will notice that slashes (`/') surround the string `foo' in the `awk' program. The slashes indicate that `foo' is the pattern to search for. This type of pattern is called a "regular expression", which is covered in more detail later (*note Regexp::). The pattern is allowed to match parts of words. There are single quotes around the `awk' program so that the shell won't interpret any of it as special shell characters. Here is what this program prints: $ awk '/foo/ { print $0 }' BBS-list -| fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B -| foot 555-6699 1200/300 B -| macfoo 555-6480 1200/300 A -| sabafoo 555-2127 1200/300 C In an `awk' rule, either the pattern or the action can be omitted, but not both. If the pattern is omitted, then the action is performed for _every_ input line. If the action is omitted, the default action is to print all lines that match the pattern. Thus, we could leave out the action (the `print' statement and the curly braces) in the previous example and the result would be the same: `awk' prints all lines matching the pattern `foo'. By comparison, omitting the `print' statement but retaining the curly braces makes an empty action that does nothing (i.e., no lines are printed). Many practical `awk' programs are just a line or two. Following is a collection of useful, short programs to get you started. Some of these programs contain constructs that haven't been covered yet. (The description of the program will give you a good idea of what is going on, but please read the rest of the Info file to become an `awk' expert!) Most of the examples use a data file named `data'. This is just a placeholder; if you use these programs yourself, substitute your own file names for `data'. For future reference, note that there is often more than one way to do things in `awk'. At some point, you may want to look back at these examples and see if you can come up with different ways to do the same things shown here: * Print the length of the longest input line: awk '{ if (length($0) > max) max = length($0) } END { print max }' data * Print every line that is longer than 80 characters: awk 'length($0) > 80' data The sole rule has a relational expression as its pattern and it has no action--so the default action, printing the record, is used. * Print the length of the longest line in `data': expand data | awk '{ if (x < length()) x = length() } END { print "maximum line length is " x }' The input is processed by the `expand' utility to change TABs into spaces, so the widths compared are actually the right-margin columns. * Print every line that has at least one field: awk 'NF > 0' data This is an easy way to delete blank lines from a file (or rather, to create a new file similar to the old file but from which the blank lines have been removed). * Print seven random numbers from 0 to 100, inclusive: awk 'BEGIN { for (i = 1; i <= 7; i++) print int(101 * rand()) }' * Print the total number of bytes used by FILES: ls -l FILES | awk '{ x += $5 } END { print "total bytes: " x }' * Print the total number of kilobytes used by FILES: ls -l FILES | awk '{ x += $5 } END { print "total K-bytes:", x / 1024 }' * Print a sorted list of the login names of all users: awk -F: '{ print $1 }' /etc/passwd | sort * Count the lines in a file: awk 'END { print NR }' data * Print the even-numbered lines in the data file: awk 'NR % 2 == 0' data If you use the expression `NR % 2 == 1' instead, the program would print the odd-numbered lines. File: gawk.info, Node: Two Rules, Next: More Complex, Prev: Very Simple, Up: Getting Started 1.4 An Example with Two Rules ============================= The `awk' utility reads the input files one line at a time. For each line, `awk' tries the patterns of each of the rules. If several patterns match, then several actions are run in the order in which they appear in the `awk' program. If no patterns match, then no actions are run. After processing all the rules that match the line (and perhaps there are none), `awk' reads the next line. (However, *note Next Statement::, and also *note Nextfile Statement::). This continues until the program reaches the end of the file. For example, the following `awk' program contains two rules: /12/ { print $0 } /21/ { print $0 } The first rule has the string `12' as the pattern and `print $0' as the action. The second rule has the string `21' as the pattern and also has `print $0' as the action. Each rule's action is enclosed in its own pair of braces. This program prints every line that contains the string `12' _or_ the string `21'. If a line contains both strings, it is printed twice, once by each rule. This is what happens if we run this program on our two sample data files, `BBS-list' and `inventory-shipped': $ awk '/12/ { print $0 } > /21/ { print $0 }' BBS-list inventory-shipped -| aardvark 555-5553 1200/300 B -| alpo-net 555-3412 2400/1200/300 A -| barfly 555-7685 1200/300 A -| bites 555-1675 2400/1200/300 A -| core 555-2912 1200/300 C -| fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B -| foot 555-6699 1200/300 B -| macfoo 555-6480 1200/300 A -| sdace 555-3430 2400/1200/300 A -| sabafoo 555-2127 1200/300 C -| sabafoo 555-2127 1200/300 C -| Jan 21 36 64 620 -| Apr 21 70 74 514 Note how the line beginning with `sabafoo' in `BBS-list' was printed twice, once for each rule. File: gawk.info, Node: More Complex, Next: Statements/Lines, Prev: Two Rules, Up: Getting Started 1.5 A More Complex Example ========================== Now that we've mastered some simple tasks, let's look at what typical `awk' programs do. This example shows how `awk' can be used to summarize, select, and rearrange the output of another utility. It uses features that haven't been covered yet, so don't worry if you don't understand all the details: LC_ALL=C ls -l | awk '$6 == "Nov" { sum += $5 } END { print sum }' This command prints the total number of bytes in all the files in the current directory that were last modified in November (of any year). The `ls -l' part of this example is a system command that gives you a listing of the files in a directory, including each file's size and the date the file was last modified. Its output looks like this: -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 1933 Nov 7 13:05 Makefile -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 10809 Nov 7 13:03 awk.h -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 983 Apr 13 12:14 awk.tab.h -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 31869 Jun 15 12:20 awkgram.y -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 22414 Nov 7 13:03 awk1.c -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 37455 Nov 7 13:03 awk2.c -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 27511 Dec 9 13:07 awk3.c -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 7989 Nov 7 13:03 awk4.c The first field contains read-write permissions, the second field contains the number of links to the file, and the third field identifies the owner of the file. The fourth field identifies the group of the file. The fifth field contains the size of the file in bytes. The sixth, seventh, and eighth fields contain the month, day, and time, respectively, that the file was last modified. Finally, the ninth field contains the file name.(1) The `$6 == "Nov"' in our `awk' program is an expression that tests whether the sixth field of the output from `ls -l' matches the string `Nov'. Each time a line has the string `Nov' for its sixth field, the action `sum += $5' is performed. This adds the fifth field (the file's size) to the variable `sum'. As a result, when `awk' has finished reading all the input lines, `sum' is the total of the sizes of the files whose lines matched the pattern. (This works because `awk' variables are automatically initialized to zero.) After the last line of output from `ls' has been processed, the `END' rule executes and prints the value of `sum'. In this example, the value of `sum' is 80600. These more advanced `awk' techniques are covered in later sections (*note Action Overview::). Before you can move on to more advanced `awk' programming, you have to know how `awk' interprets your input and displays your output. By manipulating fields and using `print' statements, you can produce some very useful and impressive-looking reports. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The `LC_ALL=C' is needed to produce this traditional-style output from `ls'. File: gawk.info, Node: Statements/Lines, Next: Other Features, Prev: More Complex, Up: Getting Started 1.6 `awk' Statements Versus Lines ================================= Most often, each line in an `awk' program is a separate statement or separate rule, like this: awk '/12/ { print $0 } /21/ { print $0 }' BBS-list inventory-shipped However, `gawk' ignores newlines after any of the following symbols and keywords: , { ? : || && do else A newline at any other point is considered the end of the statement.(1) If you would like to split a single statement into two lines at a point where a newline would terminate it, you can "continue" it by ending the first line with a backslash character (`\'). The backslash must be the final character on the line in order to be recognized as a continuation character. A backslash is allowed anywhere in the statement, even in the middle of a string or regular expression. For example: awk '/This regular expression is too long, so continue it\ on the next line/ { print $1 }' We have generally not used backslash continuation in our sample programs. `gawk' places no limit on the length of a line, so backslash continuation is never strictly necessary; it just makes programs more readable. For this same reason, as well as for clarity, we have kept most statements short in the sample programs presented throughout the Info file. Backslash continuation is most useful when your `awk' program is in a separate source file instead of entered from the command line. You should also note that many `awk' implementations are more particular about where you may use backslash continuation. For example, they may not allow you to split a string constant using backslash continuation. Thus, for maximum portability of your `awk' programs, it is best not to split your lines in the middle of a regular expression or a string. CAUTION: _Backslash continuation does not work as described with the C shell._ It works for `awk' programs in files and for one-shot programs, _provided_ you are using a POSIX-compliant shell, such as the Unix Bourne shell or Bash. But the C shell behaves differently! There, you must use two backslashes in a row, followed by a newline. Note also that when using the C shell, _every_ newline in your `awk' program must be escaped with a backslash. To illustrate: % awk 'BEGIN { \ ? print \\ ? "hello, world" \ ? }' -| hello, world Here, the `%' and `?' are the C shell's primary and secondary prompts, analogous to the standard shell's `$' and `>'. Compare the previous example to how it is done with a POSIX-compliant shell: $ awk 'BEGIN { > print \ > "hello, world" > }' -| hello, world `awk' is a line-oriented language. Each rule's action has to begin on the same line as the pattern. To have the pattern and action on separate lines, you _must_ use backslash continuation; there is no other option. Another thing to keep in mind is that backslash continuation and comments do not mix. As soon as `awk' sees the `#' that starts a comment, it ignores _everything_ on the rest of the line. For example: $ gawk 'BEGIN { print "dont panic" # a friendly \ > BEGIN rule > }' error--> gawk: cmd. line:2: BEGIN rule error--> gawk: cmd. line:2: ^ parse error In this case, it looks like the backslash would continue the comment onto the next line. However, the backslash-newline combination is never even noticed because it is "hidden" inside the comment. Thus, the `BEGIN' is noted as a syntax error. When `awk' statements within one rule are short, you might want to put more than one of them on a line. This is accomplished by separating the statements with a semicolon (`;'). This also applies to the rules themselves. Thus, the program shown at the start of this minor node could also be written this way: /12/ { print $0 } ; /21/ { print $0 } NOTE: The requirement that states that rules on the same line must be separated with a semicolon was not in the original `awk' language; it was added for consistency with the treatment of statements within an action. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The `?' and `:' referred to here is the three-operand conditional expression described in *note Conditional Exp::. Splitting lines after `?' and `:' is a minor `gawk' extension; if `--posix' is specified (*note Options::), then this extension is disabled. File: gawk.info, Node: Other Features, Next: When, Prev: Statements/Lines, Up: Getting Started 1.7 Other Features of `awk' =========================== The `awk' language provides a number of predefined, or "built-in", variables that your programs can use to get information from `awk'. There are other variables your program can set as well to control how `awk' processes your data. In addition, `awk' provides a number of built-in functions for doing common computational and string-related operations. `gawk' provides built-in functions for working with timestamps, performing bit manipulation, for runtime string translation (internationalization), determining the type of a variable, and array sorting. As we develop our presentation of the `awk' language, we introduce most of the variables and many of the functions. They are described systematically in *note Built-in Variables::, and *note Built-in::. File: gawk.info, Node: When, Prev: Other Features, Up: Getting Started 1.8 When to Use `awk' ===================== Now that you've seen some of what `awk' can do, you might wonder how `awk' could be useful for you. By using utility programs, advanced patterns, field separators, arithmetic statements, and other selection criteria, you can produce much more complex output. The `awk' language is very useful for producing reports from large amounts of raw data, such as summarizing information from the output of other utility programs like `ls'. (*Note More Complex::.) Programs written with `awk' are usually much smaller than they would be in other languages. This makes `awk' programs easy to compose and use. Often, `awk' programs can be quickly composed at your keyboard, used once, and thrown away. Because `awk' programs are interpreted, you can avoid the (usually lengthy) compilation part of the typical edit-compile-test-debug cycle of software development. Complex programs have been written in `awk', including a complete retargetable assembler for eight-bit microprocessors (*note Glossary::, for more information), and a microcode assembler for a special-purpose Prolog computer. While the original `awk''s capabilities were strained by tasks of such complexity, modern versions are more capable. Even Brian Kernighan's version of `awk' has fewer predefined limits, and those that it has are much larger than they used to be. If you find yourself writing `awk' scripts of more than, say, a few hundred lines, you might consider using a different programming language. Emacs Lisp is a good choice if you need sophisticated string or pattern matching capabilities. The shell is also good at string and pattern matching; in addition, it allows powerful use of the system utilities. More conventional languages, such as C, C++, and Java, offer better facilities for system programming and for managing the complexity of large programs. Programs in these languages may require more lines of source code than the equivalent `awk' programs, but they are easier to maintain and usually run more efficiently. File: gawk.info, Node: Invoking Gawk, Next: Regexp, Prev: Getting Started, Up: Top 2 Running `awk' and `gawk' ************************** This major node covers how to run awk, both POSIX-standard and `gawk'-specific command-line options, and what `awk' and `gawk' do with non-option arguments. It then proceeds to cover how `gawk' searches for source files, reading standard input along with other files, `gawk''s environment variables, `gawk''s exit status, using include files, and obsolete and undocumented options and/or features. Many of the options and features described here are discussed in more detail later in the Info file; feel free to skip over things in this major node that don't interest you right now. * Menu: * Command Line:: How to run `awk'. * Options:: Command-line options and their meanings. * Other Arguments:: Input file names and variable assignments. * Naming Standard Input:: How to specify standard input with other files. * Environment Variables:: The environment variables `gawk' uses. * Exit Status:: `gawk''s exit status. * Include Files:: Including other files into your program. * Obsolete:: Obsolete Options and/or features. * Undocumented:: Undocumented Options and Features. File: gawk.info, Node: Command Line, Next: Options, Up: Invoking Gawk 2.1 Invoking `awk' ================== There are two ways to run `awk'--with an explicit program or with one or more program files. Here are templates for both of them; items enclosed in [...] in these templates are optional: awk [OPTIONS] -f progfile [`--'] FILE ... awk [OPTIONS] [`--'] 'PROGRAM' FILE ... Besides traditional one-letter POSIX-style options, `gawk' also supports GNU long options. It is possible to invoke `awk' with an empty program: awk '' datafile1 datafile2 Doing so makes little sense, though; `awk' exits silently when given an empty program. (d.c.) If `--lint' has been specified on the command line, `gawk' issues a warning that the program is empty. File: gawk.info, Node: Options, Next: Other Arguments, Prev: Command Line, Up: Invoking Gawk 2.2 Command-Line Options ======================== Options begin with a dash and consist of a single character. GNU-style long options consist of two dashes and a keyword. The keyword can be abbreviated, as long as the abbreviation allows the option to be uniquely identified. If the option takes an argument, then the keyword is either immediately followed by an equals sign (`=') and the argument's value, or the keyword and the argument's value are separated by whitespace. If a particular option with a value is given more than once, it is the last value that counts. Each long option for `gawk' has a corresponding POSIX-style short option. The long and short options are interchangeable in all contexts. The following list describes options mandated by the POSIX standard: `-F FS' `--field-separator FS' Set the `FS' variable to FS (*note Field Separators::). `-f SOURCE-FILE' `--file SOURCE-FILE' Read `awk' program source from SOURCE-FILE instead of in the first non-option argument. This option may be given multiple times; the `awk' program consists of the concatenation the contents of each specified SOURCE-FILE. `-v VAR=VAL' `--assign VAR=VAL' Set the variable VAR to the value VAL _before_ execution of the program begins. Such variable values are available inside the `BEGIN' rule (*note Other Arguments::). The `-v' option can only set one variable, but it can be used more than once, setting another variable each time, like this: `awk -v foo=1 -v bar=2 ...'. CAUTION: Using `-v' to set the values of the built-in variables may lead to surprising results. `awk' will reset the values of those variables as it needs to, possibly ignoring any predefined value you may have given. `-W GAWK-OPT' Provide an implementation-specific option. This is the POSIX convention for providing implementation-specific options. These options also have corresponding GNU-style long options. Note that the long options may be abbreviated, as long as the abbreviations remain unique. The full list of `gawk'-specific options is provided next. `--' Signal the end of the command-line options. The following arguments are not treated as options even if they begin with `-'. This interpretation of `--' follows the POSIX argument parsing conventions. This is useful if you have file names that start with `-', or in shell scripts, if you have file names that will be specified by the user that could start with `-'. It is also useful for passing options on to the `awk' program; see *note Getopt Function::. The following list describes `gawk'-specific options: `-b' `--characters-as-bytes' Cause `gawk' to treat all input data as single-byte characters. Normally, `gawk' follows the POSIX standard and attempts to process its input data according to the current locale. This can often involve converting multibyte characters into wide characters (internally), and can lead to problems or confusion if the input data does not contain valid multibyte characters. This option is an easy way to tell `gawk': "hands off my data!". `-c' `--traditional' Specify "compatibility mode", in which the GNU extensions to the `awk' language are disabled, so that `gawk' behaves just like Brian Kernighan's version `awk'. *Note POSIX/GNU::, which summarizes the extensions. Also see *note Compatibility Mode::. `-C' `--copyright' Print the short version of the General Public License and then exit. `-d [FILE]' `--dump-variables[=FILE]' Print a sorted list of global variables, their types, and final values to FILE. If no FILE is provided, print this list to the file named `awkvars.out' in the current directory. Having a list of all global variables is a good way to look for typographical errors in your programs. You would also use this option if you have a large program with a lot of functions, and you want to be sure that your functions don't inadvertently use global variables that you meant to be local. (This is a particularly easy mistake to make with simple variable names like `i', `j', etc.) `-e PROGRAM-TEXT' `--source PROGRAM-TEXT' Provide program source code in the PROGRAM-TEXT. This option allows you to mix source code in files with source code that you enter on the command line. This is particularly useful when you have library functions that you want to use from your command-line programs (*note AWKPATH Variable::). `-E FILE' `--exec FILE' Similar to `-f', read `awk' program text from FILE. There are two differences from `-f': * This option terminates option processing; anything else on the command line is passed on directly to the `awk' program. * Command-line variable assignments of the form `VAR=VALUE' are disallowed. This option is particularly necessary for World Wide Web CGI applications that pass arguments through the URL; using this option prevents a malicious (or other) user from passing in options, assignments, or `awk' source code (via `--source') to the CGI application. This option should be used with `#!' scripts (*note Executable Scripts::), like so: #! /usr/local/bin/gawk -E AWK PROGRAM HERE ... `-g' `--gen-pot' Analyze the source program and generate a GNU `gettext' Portable Object Template file on standard output for all string constants that have been marked for translation. *Note Internationalization::, for information about this option. `-h' `--help' Print a "usage" message summarizing the short and long style options that `gawk' accepts and then exit. `-L [value]' `--lint[=value]' Warn about constructs that are dubious or nonportable to other `awk' implementations. Some warnings are issued when `gawk' first reads your program. Others are issued at runtime, as your program executes. With an optional argument of `fatal', lint warnings become fatal errors. This may be drastic, but its use will certainly encourage the development of cleaner `awk' programs. With an optional argument of `invalid', only warnings about things that are actually invalid are issued. (This is not fully implemented yet.) Some warnings are only printed once, even if the dubious constructs they warn about occur multiple times in your `awk' program. Thus, when eliminating problems pointed out by `--lint', you should take care to search for all occurrences of each inappropriate construct. As `awk' programs are usually short, doing so is not burdensome. `-n' `--non-decimal-data' Enable automatic interpretation of octal and hexadecimal values in input data (*note Nondecimal Data::). CAUTION: This option can severely break old programs. Use with care. `-N' `--use-lc-numeric' Force the use of the locale's decimal point character when parsing numeric input data (*note Locales::). `-O' `--optimize' Enable some optimizations on the internal representation of the program. At the moment this includes just simple constant folding. The `gawk' maintainer hopes to add more optimizations over time. `-p [FILE]' `--profile[=FILE]' Enable profiling of `awk' programs (*note Profiling::). By default, profiles are created in a file named `awkprof.out'. The optional FILE argument allows you to specify a different file name for the profile file. When run with `gawk', the profile is just a "pretty printed" version of the program. When run with `pgawk', the profile contains execution counts for each statement in the program in the left margin, and function call counts for each function. `-P' `--posix' Operate in strict POSIX mode. This disables all `gawk' extensions (just like `--traditional') and disables all extensions not allowed by POSIX. *Note Common Extensions::, for a summary of the extensions in `gawk' that are disabled by this option. Also, the following additional restrictions apply: * Newlines do not act as whitespace to separate fields when `FS' is equal to a single space (*note Fields::). * Newlines are not allowed after `?' or `:' (*note Conditional Exp::). * Specifying `-Ft' on the command-line does not set the value of `FS' to be a single TAB character (*note Field Separators::). * The locale's decimal point character is used for parsing input data (*note Locales::). If you supply both `--traditional' and `--posix' on the command line, `--posix' takes precedence. `gawk' also issues a warning if both options are supplied. `-r' `--re-interval' Allow interval expressions (*note Regexp Operators::) in regexps. This is now `gawk''s default behavior. Nevertheless, this option remains both for backward compatibility, and for use in combination with the `--traditional' option. `-R FILE' `--command=FILE' `dgawk' only. Read `dgawk' debugger options and commands from FILE. *Note Dgawk Info::, for more information. `-S' `--sandbox' Disable the `system()' function, input redirections with `getline', output redirections with `print' and `printf', and dynamic extensions. This is particularly useful when you want to run `awk' scripts from questionable sources and need to make sure the scripts can't access your system (other than the specified input data file). `-t' `--lint-old' Warn about constructs that are not available in the original version of `awk' from Version 7 Unix (*note V7/SVR3.1::). `-V' `--version' Print version information for this particular copy of `gawk'. This allows you to determine if your copy of `gawk' is up to date with respect to whatever the Free Software Foundation is currently distributing. It is also useful for bug reports (*note Bugs::). As long as program text has been supplied, any other options are flagged as invalid with a warning message but are otherwise ignored. In compatibility mode, as a special case, if the value of FS supplied to the `-F' option is `t', then `FS' is set to the TAB character (`"\t"'). This is true only for `--traditional' and not for `--posix' (*note Field Separators::). The `-f' option may be used more than once on the command line. If it is, `awk' reads its program source from all of the named files, as if they had been concatenated together into one big file. This is useful for creating libraries of `awk' functions. These functions can be written once and then retrieved from a standard place, instead of having to be included into each individual program. (As mentioned in *note Definition Syntax::, function names must be unique.) With standard `awk', library functions can still be used, even if the program is entered at the terminal, by specifying `-f /dev/tty'. After typing your program, type `Ctrl-d' (the end-of-file character) to terminate it. (You may also use `-f -' to read program source from the standard input but then you will not be able to also use the standard input as a source of data.) Because it is clumsy using the standard `awk' mechanisms to mix source file and command-line `awk' programs, `gawk' provides the `--source' option. This does not require you to pre-empt the standard input for your source code; it allows you to easily mix command-line and library source code (*note AWKPATH Variable::). The `--source' option may also be used multiple times on the command line. If no `-f' or `--source' option is specified, then `gawk' uses the first non-option command-line argument as the text of the program source code. If the environment variable `POSIXLY_CORRECT' exists, then `gawk' behaves in strict POSIX mode, exactly as if you had supplied the `--posix' command-line option. Many GNU programs look for this environment variable to turn on strict POSIX mode. If `--lint' is supplied on the command line and `gawk' turns on POSIX mode because of `POSIXLY_CORRECT', then it issues a warning message indicating that POSIX mode is in effect. You would typically set this variable in your shell's startup file. For a Bourne-compatible shell (such as Bash), you would add these lines to the `.profile' file in your home directory: POSIXLY_CORRECT=true export POSIXLY_CORRECT For a C shell-compatible shell,(1) you would add this line to the `.login' file in your home directory: setenv POSIXLY_CORRECT true Having `POSIXLY_CORRECT' set is not recommended for daily use, but it is good for testing the portability of your programs to other environments. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Not recommended. File: gawk.info, Node: Other Arguments, Next: Naming Standard Input, Prev: Options, Up: Invoking Gawk 2.3 Other Command-Line Arguments ================================ Any additional arguments on the command line are normally treated as input files to be processed in the order specified. However, an argument that has the form `VAR=VALUE', assigns the value VALUE to the variable VAR--it does not specify a file at all. (See *note Assignment Options::.) All these arguments are made available to your `awk' program in the `ARGV' array (*note Built-in Variables::). Command-line options and the program text (if present) are omitted from `ARGV'. All other arguments, including variable assignments, are included. As each element of `ARGV' is processed, `gawk' sets the variable `ARGIND' to the index in `ARGV' of the current element. The distinction between file name arguments and variable-assignment arguments is made when `awk' is about to open the next input file. At that point in execution, it checks the file name to see whether it is really a variable assignment; if so, `awk' sets the variable instead of reading a file. Therefore, the variables actually receive the given values after all previously specified files have been read. In particular, the values of variables assigned in this fashion are _not_ available inside a `BEGIN' rule (*note BEGIN/END::), because such rules are run before `awk' begins scanning the argument list. The variable values given on the command line are processed for escape sequences (*note Escape Sequences::). (d.c.) In some earlier implementations of `awk', when a variable assignment occurred before any file names, the assignment would happen _before_ the `BEGIN' rule was executed. `awk''s behavior was thus inconsistent; some command-line assignments were available inside the `BEGIN' rule, while others were not. Unfortunately, some applications came to depend upon this "feature." When `awk' was changed to be more consistent, the `-v' option was added to accommodate applications that depended upon the old behavior. The variable assignment feature is most useful for assigning to variables such as `RS', `OFS', and `ORS', which control input and output formats before scanning the data files. It is also useful for controlling state if multiple passes are needed over a data file. For example: awk 'pass == 1 { PASS 1 STUFF } pass == 2 { PASS 2 STUFF }' pass=1 mydata pass=2 mydata Given the variable assignment feature, the `-F' option for setting the value of `FS' is not strictly necessary. It remains for historical compatibility. File: gawk.info, Node: Naming Standard Input, Next: Environment Variables, Prev: Other Arguments, Up: Invoking Gawk 2.4 Naming Standard Input ========================= Often, you may wish to read standard input together with other files. For example, you may wish to read one file, read standard input coming from a pipe, and then read another file. The way to name the standard input, with all versions of `awk', is to use a single, standalone minus sign or dash, `-'. For example: SOME_COMMAND | awk -f myprog.awk file1 - file2 Here, `awk' first reads `file1', then it reads the output of SOME_COMMAND, and finally it reads `file2'. You may also use `"-"' to name standard input when reading files with `getline' (*note Getline/File::). In addition, `gawk' allows you to specify the special file name `/dev/stdin', both on the command line and with `getline'. Some other versions of `awk' also support this, but it is not standard. (Some operating systems provide a `/dev/stdin' file in the file system, however, `gawk' always processes this file name itself.) File: gawk.info, Node: Environment Variables, Next: Exit Status, Prev: Naming Standard Input, Up: Invoking Gawk 2.5 The Environment Variables `gawk' Uses ========================================= A number of environment variables influence how `gawk' behaves. * Menu: * AWKPATH Variable:: Searching directories for `awk' programs. * Other Environment Variables:: The environment variables. File: gawk.info, Node: AWKPATH Variable, Next: Other Environment Variables, Up: Environment Variables 2.5.1 The `AWKPATH' Environment Variable ---------------------------------------- The previous minor node described how `awk' program files can be named on the command-line with the `-f' option. In most `awk' implementations, you must supply a precise path name for each program file, unless the file is in the current directory. But in `gawk', if the file name supplied to the `-f' option does not contain a `/', then `gawk' searches a list of directories (called the "search path"), one by one, looking for a file with the specified name. The search path is a string consisting of directory names separated by colons. `gawk' gets its search path from the `AWKPATH' environment variable. If that variable does not exist, `gawk' uses a default path, `.:/usr/local/share/awk'.(1) The search path feature is particularly useful for building libraries of useful `awk' functions. The library files can be placed in a standard directory in the default path and then specified on the command line with a short file name. Otherwise, the full file name would have to be typed for each file. By using both the `--source' and `-f' options, your command-line `awk' programs can use facilities in `awk' library files (*note Library Functions::). Path searching is not done if `gawk' is in compatibility mode. This is true for both `--traditional' and `--posix'. *Note Options::. NOTE: To include the current directory in the path, either place `.' explicitly in the path or write a null entry in the path. (A null entry is indicated by starting or ending the path with a colon or by placing two colons next to each other (`::').) This path search mechanism is similar to the shell's. However, `gawk' always looks in the current directory _before_ searching `AWKPATH', so there is no real reason to include the current directory in the search path. If `AWKPATH' is not defined in the environment, `gawk' places its default search path into `ENVIRON["AWKPATH"]'. This makes it easy to determine the actual search path that `gawk' will use from within an `awk' program. While you can change `ENVIRON["AWKPATH"]' within your `awk' program, this has no effect on the running program's behavior. This makes sense: the `AWKPATH' environment variable is used to find the program source files. Once your program is running, all the files have been found, and `gawk' no longer needs to use `AWKPATH'. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Your version of `gawk' may use a different directory; it will depend upon how `gawk' was built and installed. The actual directory is the value of `$(datadir)' generated when `gawk' was configured. You probably don't need to worry about this, though. File: gawk.info, Node: Other Environment Variables, Prev: AWKPATH Variable, Up: Environment Variables 2.5.2 Other Environment Variables --------------------------------- A number of other environment variables affect `gawk''s behavior, but they are more specialized. Those in the following list are meant to be used by regular users. `POSIXLY_CORRECT' Causes `gawk' to switch POSIX compatibility mode, disabling all traditional and GNU extensions. *Note Options::. `GAWK_SOCK_RETRIES' Controls the number of time `gawk' will attempt to retry a two-way TCP/IP (socket) connection before giving up. *Note TCP/IP Networking::. `GAWK_MSEC_SLEEP' Specifies the interval between connection retries, in milliseconds. On systems that do not support the `usleep()' system call, the value is rounded up to an integral number of seconds. The environment variables in the following list are meant for use by the `gawk' developers for testing and tuning. They are subject to change. The variables are: `AVG_CHAIN_MAX' The average number of items `gawk' will maintain on a hash chain for managing arrays. `AWK_HASH' If this variable exists with a value of `gst', `gawk' will switch to using the hash function from GNU Smalltalk for managing arrays. This function may be marginally faster than the standard function. `AWKREADFUNC' If this variable exists, `gawk' switches to reading source files one line at a time, instead of reading in blocks. This exists for debugging problems on filesystems on non-POSIX operating systems where I/O is performed in records, not in blocks. `GAWK_NO_DFA' If this variable exists, `gawk' does not use the DFA regexp matcher for "does it match" kinds of tests. This can cause `gawk' to be slower. Its purpose is to help isolate differences between the two regexp matchers that `gawk' uses internally. (There aren't supposed to be differences, but occasionally theory and practice don't coordinate with each other.) `GAWK_STACKSIZE' This specifies the amount by which `gawk' should grow its internal evaluation stack, when needed. `TIDYMEM' If this variable exists, `gawk' uses the `mtrace()' library calls from GNU LIBC to help track down possible memory leaks. File: gawk.info, Node: Exit Status, Next: Include Files, Prev: Environment Variables, Up: Invoking Gawk 2.6 `gawk''s Exit Status ======================== If the `exit' statement is used with a value (*note Exit Statement::), then `gawk' exits with the numeric value given to it. Otherwise, if there were no problems during execution, `gawk' exits with the value of the C constant `EXIT_SUCCESS'. This is usually zero. If an error occurs, `gawk' exits with the value of the C constant `EXIT_FAILURE'. This is usually one. If `gawk' exits because of a fatal error, the exit status is 2. On non-POSIX systems, this value may be mapped to `EXIT_FAILURE'. File: gawk.info, Node: Include Files, Next: Obsolete, Prev: Exit Status, Up: Invoking Gawk 2.7 Including Other Files Into Your Program =========================================== This minor node describes a feature that is specific to `gawk'. The `@include' keyword can be used to read external `awk' source files. This gives you the ability to split large `awk' source files into smaller, more manageable pieces, and also lets you reuse common `awk' code from various `awk' scripts. In other words, you can group together `awk' functions, used to carry out specific tasks, into external files. These files can be used just like function libraries, using the `@include' keyword in conjunction with the `AWKPATH' environment variable. Let's see an example. We'll start with two (trivial) `awk' scripts, namely `test1' and `test2'. Here is the `test1' script: BEGIN { print "This is script test1." } and here is `test2': @include "test1" BEGIN { print "This is script test2." } Running `gawk' with `test2' produces the following result: $ gawk -f test2 -| This is file test1. -| This is file test2. `gawk' runs the `test2' script which includes `test1' using the `@include' keyword. So, to include external `awk' source files you just use `@include' followed by the name of the file to be included, enclosed in double quotes. NOTE: Keep in mind that this is a language construct and the file name cannot be a string variable, but rather just a literal string in double quotes. The files to be included may be nested; e.g., given a third script, namely `test3': @include "test2" BEGIN { print "This is script test3." } Running `gawk' with the `test3' script produces the following results: $ gawk -f test3 -| This is file test1. -| This is file test2. -| This is file test3. The file name can, of course, be a pathname. For example: @include "../io_funcs" or: @include "/usr/awklib/network" are valid. The `AWKPATH' environment variable can be of great value when using `@include'. The same rules for the use of the `AWKPATH' variable in command-line file searches (*note AWKPATH Variable::) apply to `@include' also. This is very helpful in constructing `gawk' function libraries. If you have a large script with useful, general purpose `awk' functions, you can break it down into library files and put those files in a special directory. You can then include those "libraries," using either the full pathnames of the files, or by setting the `AWKPATH' environment variable accordingly and then using `@include' with just the file part of the full pathname. Of course you can have more than one directory to keep library files; the more complex the working environment is, the more directories you may need to organize the files to be included. Given the ability to specify multiple `-f' options, the `@include' mechanism is not strictly necessary. However, the `@include' keyword can help you in constructing self-contained `gawk' programs, thus reducing the need for writing complex and tedious command lines. In particular, `@include' is very useful for writing CGI scripts to be run from web pages. As mentioned in *note AWKPATH Variable::, the current directory is always searched first for source files, before searching in `AWKPATH', and this also applies to files named with `@include'. File: gawk.info, Node: Obsolete, Next: Undocumented, Prev: Include Files, Up: Invoking Gawk 2.8 Obsolete Options and/or Features ==================================== This minor node describes features and/or command-line options from previous releases of `gawk' that are either not available in the current version or that are still supported but deprecated (meaning that they will _not_ be in the next release). The process-related special files `/dev/pid', `/dev/ppid', `/dev/pgrpid', and `/dev/user' were deprecated in `gawk' 3.1, but still worked. As of version 4.0, they are no longer interpreted specially by `gawk'. (Use `PROCINFO' instead; see *note Auto-set::.) File: gawk.info, Node: Undocumented, Prev: Obsolete, Up: Invoking Gawk 2.9 Undocumented Options and Features ===================================== Use the Source, Luke! Obi-Wan This minor node intentionally left blank. File: gawk.info, Node: Regexp, Next: Reading Files, Prev: Invoking Gawk, Up: Top 3 Regular Expressions ********************* A "regular expression", or "regexp", is a way of describing a set of strings. Because regular expressions are such a fundamental part of `awk' programming, their format and use deserve a separate major node. A regular expression enclosed in slashes (`/') is an `awk' pattern that matches every input record whose text belongs to that set. The simplest regular expression is a sequence of letters, numbers, or both. Such a regexp matches any string that contains that sequence. Thus, the regexp `foo' matches any string containing `foo'. Therefore, the pattern `/foo/' matches any input record containing the three characters `foo' _anywhere_ in the record. Other kinds of regexps let you specify more complicated classes of strings. * Menu: * Regexp Usage:: How to Use Regular Expressions. * Escape Sequences:: How to write nonprinting characters. * Regexp Operators:: Regular Expression Operators. * Bracket Expressions:: What can go between `[...]'. * GNU Regexp Operators:: Operators specific to GNU software. * Case-sensitivity:: How to do case-insensitive matching. * Leftmost Longest:: How much text matches. * Computed Regexps:: Using Dynamic Regexps. * Locales:: How the locale affects things. File: gawk.info, Node: Regexp Usage, Next: Escape Sequences, Up: Regexp 3.1 How to Use Regular Expressions ================================== A regular expression can be used as a pattern by enclosing it in slashes. Then the regular expression is tested against the entire text of each record. (Normally, it only needs to match some part of the text in order to succeed.) For example, the following prints the second field of each record that contains the string `foo' anywhere in it: $ awk '/foo/ { print $2 }' BBS-list -| 555-1234 -| 555-6699 -| 555-6480 -| 555-2127 Regular expressions can also be used in matching expressions. These expressions allow you to specify the string to match against; it need not be the entire current input record. The two operators `~' and `!~' perform regular expression comparisons. Expressions using these operators can be used as patterns, or in `if', `while', `for', and `do' statements. (*Note Statements::.) For example: EXP ~ /REGEXP/ is true if the expression EXP (taken as a string) matches REGEXP. The following example matches, or selects, all input records with the uppercase letter `J' somewhere in the first field: $ awk '$1 ~ /J/' inventory-shipped -| Jan 13 25 15 115 -| Jun 31 42 75 492 -| Jul 24 34 67 436 -| Jan 21 36 64 620 So does this: awk '{ if ($1 ~ /J/) print }' inventory-shipped This next example is true if the expression EXP (taken as a character string) does _not_ match REGEXP: EXP !~ /REGEXP/ The following example matches, or selects, all input records whose first field _does not_ contain the uppercase letter `J': $ awk '$1 !~ /J/' inventory-shipped -| Feb 15 32 24 226 -| Mar 15 24 34 228 -| Apr 31 52 63 420 -| May 16 34 29 208 ... When a regexp is enclosed in slashes, such as `/foo/', we call it a "regexp constant", much like `5.27' is a numeric constant and `"foo"' is a string constant. File: gawk.info, Node: Escape Sequences, Next: Regexp Operators, Prev: Regexp Usage, Up: Regexp 3.2 Escape Sequences ==================== Some characters cannot be included literally in string constants (`"foo"') or regexp constants (`/foo/'). Instead, they should be represented with "escape sequences", which are character sequences beginning with a backslash (`\'). One use of an escape sequence is to include a double-quote character in a string constant. Because a plain double quote ends the string, you must use `\"' to represent an actual double-quote character as a part of the string. For example: $ awk 'BEGIN { print "He said \"hi!\" to her." }' -| He said "hi!" to her. The backslash character itself is another character that cannot be included normally; you must write `\\' to put one backslash in the string or regexp. Thus, the string whose contents are the two characters `"' and `\' must be written `"\"\\"'. Other escape sequences represent unprintable characters such as TAB or newline. While there is nothing to stop you from entering most unprintable characters directly in a string constant or regexp constant, they may look ugly. The following table lists all the escape sequences used in `awk' and what they represent. Unless noted otherwise, all these escape sequences apply to both string constants and regexp constants: `\\' A literal backslash, `\'. `\a' The "alert" character, `Ctrl-g', ASCII code 7 (BEL). (This usually makes some sort of audible noise.) `\b' Backspace, `Ctrl-h', ASCII code 8 (BS). `\f' Formfeed, `Ctrl-l', ASCII code 12 (FF). `\n' Newline, `Ctrl-j', ASCII code 10 (LF). `\r' Carriage return, `Ctrl-m', ASCII code 13 (CR). `\t' Horizontal TAB, `Ctrl-i', ASCII code 9 (HT). `\v' Vertical tab, `Ctrl-k', ASCII code 11 (VT). `\NNN' The octal value NNN, where NNN stands for 1 to 3 digits between `0' and `7'. For example, the code for the ASCII ESC (escape) character is `\033'. `\xHH...' The hexadecimal value HH, where HH stands for a sequence of hexadecimal digits (`0'-`9', and either `A'-`F' or `a'-`f'). Like the same construct in ISO C, the escape sequence continues until the first nonhexadecimal digit is seen. (c.e.) However, using more than two hexadecimal digits produces undefined results. (The `\x' escape sequence is not allowed in POSIX `awk'.) `\/' A literal slash (necessary for regexp constants only). This sequence is used when you want to write a regexp constant that contains a slash. Because the regexp is delimited by slashes, you need to escape the slash that is part of the pattern, in order to tell `awk' to keep processing the rest of the regexp. `\"' A literal double quote (necessary for string constants only). This sequence is used when you want to write a string constant that contains a double quote. Because the string is delimited by double quotes, you need to escape the quote that is part of the string, in order to tell `awk' to keep processing the rest of the string. In `gawk', a number of additional two-character sequences that begin with a backslash have special meaning in regexps. *Note GNU Regexp Operators::. In a regexp, a backslash before any character that is not in the previous list and not listed in *note GNU Regexp Operators::, means that the next character should be taken literally, even if it would normally be a regexp operator. For example, `/a\+b/' matches the three characters `a+b'. For complete portability, do not use a backslash before any character not shown in the previous list. To summarize: * The escape sequences in the table above are always processed first, for both string constants and regexp constants. This happens very early, as soon as `awk' reads your program. * `gawk' processes both regexp constants and dynamic regexps (*note Computed Regexps::), for the special operators listed in *note GNU Regexp Operators::. * A backslash before any other character means to treat that character literally. Advanced Notes: Backslash Before Regular Characters --------------------------------------------------- If you place a backslash in a string constant before something that is not one of the characters previously listed, POSIX `awk' purposely leaves what happens as undefined. There are two choices: Strip the backslash out This is what Brian Kernighan's `awk' and `gawk' both do. For example, `"a\qc"' is the same as `"aqc"'. (Because this is such an easy bug both to introduce and to miss, `gawk' warns you about it.) Consider `FS = "[ \t]+\|[ \t]+"' to use vertical bars surrounded by whitespace as the field separator. There should be two backslashes in the string: `FS = "[ \t]+\\|[ \t]+"'.) Leave the backslash alone Some other `awk' implementations do this. In such implementations, typing `"a\qc"' is the same as typing `"a\\qc"'. Advanced Notes: Escape Sequences for Metacharacters --------------------------------------------------- Suppose you use an octal or hexadecimal escape to represent a regexp metacharacter. (See *note Regexp Operators::.) Does `awk' treat the character as a literal character or as a regexp operator? Historically, such characters were taken literally. (d.c.) However, the POSIX standard indicates that they should be treated as real metacharacters, which is what `gawk' does. In compatibility mode (*note Options::), `gawk' treats the characters represented by octal and hexadecimal escape sequences literally when used in regexp constants. Thus, `/a\52b/' is equivalent to `/a\*b/'. File: gawk.info, Node: Regexp Operators, Next: Bracket Expressions, Prev: Escape Sequences, Up: Regexp 3.3 Regular Expression Operators ================================ You can combine regular expressions with special characters, called "regular expression operators" or "metacharacters", to increase the power and versatility of regular expressions. The escape sequences described in *note Escape Sequences::, are valid inside a regexp. They are introduced by a `\' and are recognized and converted into corresponding real characters as the very first step in processing regexps. Here is a list of metacharacters. All characters that are not escape sequences and that are not listed in the table stand for themselves: `\' This is used to suppress the special meaning of a character when matching. For example, `\$' matches the character `$'. `^' This matches the beginning of a string. For example, `^@chapter' matches `@chapter' at the beginning of a string and can be used to identify chapter beginnings in Texinfo source files. The `^' is known as an "anchor", because it anchors the pattern to match only at the beginning of the string. It is important to realize that `^' does not match the beginning of a line embedded in a string. The condition is not true in the following example: if ("line1\nLINE 2" ~ /^L/) ... `$' This is similar to `^', but it matches only at the end of a string. For example, `p$' matches a record that ends with a `p'. The `$' is an anchor and does not match the end of a line embedded in a string. The condition in the following example is not true: if ("line1\nLINE 2" ~ /1$/) ... `. (period)' This matches any single character, _including_ the newline character. For example, `.P' matches any single character followed by a `P' in a string. Using concatenation, we can make a regular expression such as `U.A', which matches any three-character sequence that begins with `U' and ends with `A'. In strict POSIX mode (*note Options::), `.' does not match the NUL character, which is a character with all bits equal to zero. Otherwise, NUL is just another character. Other versions of `awk' may not be able to match the NUL character. `[...]' This is called a "bracket expression".(1) It matches any _one_ of the characters that are enclosed in the square brackets. For example, `[MVX]' matches any one of the characters `M', `V', or `X' in a string. A full discussion of what can be inside the square brackets of a bracket expression is given in *note Bracket Expressions::. `[^ ...]' This is a "complemented bracket expression". The first character after the `[' _must_ be a `^'. It matches any characters _except_ those in the square brackets. For example, `[^awk]' matches any character that is not an `a', `w', or `k'. `|' This is the "alternation operator" and it is used to specify alternatives. The `|' has the lowest precedence of all the regular expression operators. For example, `^P|[[:digit:]]' matches any string that matches either `^P' or `[[:digit:]]'. This means it matches any string that starts with `P' or contains a digit. The alternation applies to the largest possible regexps on either side. `(...)' Parentheses are used for grouping in regular expressions, as in arithmetic. They can be used to concatenate regular expressions containing the alternation operator, `|'. For example, `@(samp|code)\{[^}]+\}' matches both `@code{foo}' and `@samp{bar}'. (These are Texinfo formatting control sequences. The `+' is explained further on in this list.) `*' This symbol means that the preceding regular expression should be repeated as many times as necessary to find a match. For example, `ph*' applies the `*' symbol to the preceding `h' and looks for matches of one `p' followed by any number of `h's. This also matches just `p' if no `h's are present. The `*' repeats the _smallest_ possible preceding expression. (Use parentheses if you want to repeat a larger expression.) It finds as many repetitions as possible. For example, `awk '/$c[ad][ad]*r x$/ { print }' sample' prints every record in `sample' containing a string of the form `(car x)', `(cdr x)', `(cadr x)', and so on. Notice the escaping of the parentheses by preceding them with backslashes. `+' This symbol is similar to `*', except that the preceding expression must be matched at least once. This means that `wh+y' would match `why' and `whhy', but not `wy', whereas `wh*y' would match all three of these strings. The following is a simpler way of writing the last `*' example: awk '/$c[ad]+r x$/ { print }' sample `?' This symbol is similar to `*', except that the preceding expression can be matched either once or not at all. For example, `fe?d' matches `fed' and `fd', but nothing else. `{N}' `{N,}' `{N,M}' One or two numbers inside braces denote an "interval expression". If there is one number in the braces, the preceding regexp is repeated N times. If there are two numbers separated by a comma, the preceding regexp is repeated N to M times. If there is one number followed by a comma, then the preceding regexp is repeated at least N times: `wh{3}y' Matches `whhhy', but not `why' or `whhhhy'. `wh{3,5}y' Matches `whhhy', `whhhhy', or `whhhhhy', only. `wh{2,}y' Matches `whhy' or `whhhy', and so on. Interval expressions were not traditionally available in `awk'. They were added as part of the POSIX standard to make `awk' and `egrep' consistent with each other. Initially, because old programs may use `{' and `}' in regexp constants, `gawk' did _not_ match interval expressions in regexps. However, beginning with version 4.0, `gawk' does match interval expressions by default. This is because compatibility with POSIX has become more important to most `gawk' users than compatibility with old programs. For programs that use `{' and `}' in regexp constants, it is good practice to always escape them with a backslash. Then the regexp constants are valid and work the way you want them to, using any version of `awk'.(2) In regular expressions, the `*', `+', and `?' operators, as well as the braces `{' and `}', have the highest precedence, followed by concatenation, and finally by `|'. As in arithmetic, parentheses can change how operators are grouped. In POSIX `awk' and `gawk', the `*', `+', and `?' operators stand for themselves when there is nothing in the regexp that precedes them. For example, `/+/' matches a literal plus sign. However, many other versions of `awk' treat such a usage as a syntax error. If `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), interval expressions are not available in regular expressions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) In other literature, you may see a bracket expression referred to as either a "character set", a "character class", or a "character list". (2) Use two backslashes if you're using a string constant with a regexp operator or function. File: gawk.info, Node: Bracket Expressions, Next: GNU Regexp Operators, Prev: Regexp Operators, Up: Regexp 3.4 Using Bracket Expressions ============================= Within a bracket expression, a "range expression" consists of two characters separated by a hyphen. It matches any single character that sorts between the two characters, using the locale's collating sequence and character set. For example, `[0-9]' is equivalent to `[0123456789]'. Unfortunately, providing simple character ranges such as `[a-z]' usually does not work like you might expect, due to locale-related issues. This is discussed more fully, in *note Locales::. To include one of the characters `\', `]', `-', or `^' in a bracket expression, put a `\' in front of it. For example: [d\]] matches either `d' or `]'. This treatment of `\' in bracket expressions is compatible with other `awk' implementations and is also mandated by POSIX. The regular expressions in `awk' are a superset of the POSIX specification for Extended Regular Expressions (EREs). POSIX EREs are based on the regular expressions accepted by the traditional `egrep' utility. "Character classes" are a feature introduced in the POSIX standard. A character class is a special notation for describing lists of characters that have a specific attribute, but the actual characters can vary from country to country and/or from character set to character set. For example, the notion of what is an alphabetic character differs between the United States and France. A character class is only valid in a regexp _inside_ the brackets of a bracket expression. Character classes consist of `[:', a keyword denoting the class, and `:]'. *note table-char-classes:: lists the character classes defined by the POSIX standard. Class Meaning -------------------------------------------------------------------------- `[:alnum:]' Alphanumeric characters. `[:alpha:]' Alphabetic characters. `[:blank:]' Space and TAB characters. `[:cntrl:]' Control characters. `[:digit:]' Numeric characters. `[:graph:]' Characters that are both printable and visible. (A space is printable but not visible, whereas an `a' is both.) `[:lower:]' Lowercase alphabetic characters. `[:print:]' Printable characters (characters that are not control characters). `[:punct:]' Punctuation characters (characters that are not letters, digits, control characters, or space characters). `[:space:]' Space characters (such as space, TAB, and formfeed, to name a few). `[:upper:]' Uppercase alphabetic characters. `[:xdigit:]'Characters that are hexadecimal digits. Table 3.1: POSIX Character Classes For example, before the POSIX standard, you had to write `/[A-Za-z0-9]/' to match alphanumeric characters. If your character set had other alphabetic characters in it, this would not match them, and if your character set collated differently from ASCII, this might not even match the ASCII alphanumeric characters. With the POSIX character classes, you can write `/[[:alnum:]]/' to match the alphabetic and numeric characters in your character set. Two additional special sequences can appear in bracket expressions. These apply to non-ASCII character sets, which can have single symbols (called "collating elements") that are represented with more than one character. They can also have several characters that are equivalent for "collating", or sorting, purposes. (For example, in French, a plain "e" and a grave-accented "e`" are equivalent.) These sequences are: Collating symbols Multicharacter collating elements enclosed between `[.' and `.]'. For example, if `ch' is a collating element, then `[[.ch.]]' is a regexp that matches this collating element, whereas `[ch]' is a regexp that matches either `c' or `h'. Equivalence classes Locale-specific names for a list of characters that are equal. The name is enclosed between `[=' and `=]'. For example, the name `e' might be used to represent all of "e," "e`," and "e'." In this case, `[[=e=]]' is a regexp that matches any of `e', `e'', or `e`'. These features are very valuable in non-English-speaking locales. CAUTION: The library functions that `gawk' uses for regular expression matching currently recognize only POSIX character classes; they do not recognize collating symbols or equivalence classes. File: gawk.info, Node: GNU Regexp Operators, Next: Case-sensitivity, Prev: Bracket Expressions, Up: Regexp 3.5 `gawk'-Specific Regexp Operators ==================================== GNU software that deals with regular expressions provides a number of additional regexp operators. These operators are described in this minor node and are specific to `gawk'; they are not available in other `awk' implementations. Most of the additional operators deal with word matching. For our purposes, a "word" is a sequence of one or more letters, digits, or underscores (`_'): `\s' Matches any whitespace character. Think of it as shorthand for `[[:space:]]'. `\S' Matches any character that is not whitespace. Think of it as shorthand for `[^[:space:]]'. `\w' Matches any word-constituent character--that is, it matches any letter, digit, or underscore. Think of it as shorthand for `[[:alnum:]_]'. `\W' Matches any character that is not word-constituent. Think of it as shorthand for `[^[:alnum:]_]'. `\<' Matches the empty string at the beginning of a word. For example, `/\<away/' matches `away' but not `stowaway'. `\>' Matches the empty string at the end of a word. For example, `/stow\>/' matches `stow' but not `stowaway'. `\y' Matches the empty string at either the beginning or the end of a word (i.e., the word boundar*y*). For example, `\yballs?\y' matches either `ball' or `balls', as a separate word. `\B' Matches the empty string that occurs between two word-constituent characters. For example, `/\Brat\B/' matches `crate' but it does not match `dirty rat'. `\B' is essentially the opposite of `\y'. There are two other operators that work on buffers. In Emacs, a "buffer" is, naturally, an Emacs buffer. For other programs, `gawk''s regexp library routines consider the entire string to match as the buffer. The operators are: `\`' Matches the empty string at the beginning of a buffer (string). `\'' Matches the empty string at the end of a buffer (string). Because `^' and `$' always work in terms of the beginning and end of strings, these operators don't add any new capabilities for `awk'. They are provided for compatibility with other GNU software. In other GNU software, the word-boundary operator is `\b'. However, that conflicts with the `awk' language's definition of `\b' as backspace, so `gawk' uses a different letter. An alternative method would have been to require two backslashes in the GNU operators, but this was deemed too confusing. The current method of using `\y' for the GNU `\b' appears to be the lesser of two evils. The various command-line options (*note Options::) control how `gawk' interprets characters in regexps: No options In the default case, `gawk' provides all the facilities of POSIX regexps and the GNU regexp operators described in *note Regexp Operators::. `--posix' Only POSIX regexps are supported; the GNU operators are not special (e.g., `\w' matches a literal `w'). Interval expressions are allowed. `--traditional' Traditional Unix `awk' regexps are matched. The GNU operators are not special, and interval expressions are not available. The POSIX character classes (`[[:alnum:]]', etc.) are supported, as Brian Kernighan's `awk' does support them. Characters described by octal and hexadecimal escape sequences are treated literally, even if they represent regexp metacharacters. `--re-interval' Allow interval expressions in regexps, if `--traditional' has been provided. Otherwise, interval expressions are available by default. File: gawk.info, Node: Case-sensitivity, Next: Leftmost Longest, Prev: GNU Regexp Operators, Up: Regexp 3.6 Case Sensitivity in Matching ================================ Case is normally significant in regular expressions, both when matching ordinary characters (i.e., not metacharacters) and inside bracket expressions. Thus, a `w' in a regular expression matches only a lowercase `w' and not an uppercase `W'. The simplest way to do a case-independent match is to use a bracket expression--for example, `[Ww]'. However, this can be cumbersome if you need to use it often, and it can make the regular expressions harder to read. There are two alternatives that you might prefer. One way to perform a case-insensitive match at a particular point in the program is to convert the data to a single case, using the `tolower()' or `toupper()' built-in string functions (which we haven't discussed yet; *note String Functions::). For example: tolower($1) ~ /foo/ { ... } converts the first field to lowercase before matching against it. This works in any POSIX-compliant `awk'. Another method, specific to `gawk', is to set the variable `IGNORECASE' to a nonzero value (*note Built-in Variables::). When `IGNORECASE' is not zero, _all_ regexp and string operations ignore case. Changing the value of `IGNORECASE' dynamically controls the case-sensitivity of the program as it runs. Case is significant by default because `IGNORECASE' (like most variables) is initialized to zero: x = "aB" if (x ~ /ab/) ... # this test will fail IGNORECASE = 1 if (x ~ /ab/) ... # now it will succeed In general, you cannot use `IGNORECASE' to make certain rules case-insensitive and other rules case-sensitive, because there is no straightforward way to set `IGNORECASE' just for the pattern of a particular rule.(1) To do this, use either bracket expressions or `tolower()'. However, one thing you can do with `IGNORECASE' only is dynamically turn case-sensitivity on or off for all the rules at once. `IGNORECASE' can be set on the command line or in a `BEGIN' rule (*note Other Arguments::; also *note Using BEGIN/END::). Setting `IGNORECASE' from the command line is a way to make a program case-insensitive without having to edit it. Both regexp and string comparison operations are affected by `IGNORECASE'. In multibyte locales, the equivalences between upper- and lowercase characters are tested based on the wide-character values of the locale's character set. Otherwise, the characters are tested based on the ISO-8859-1 (ISO Latin-1) character set. This character set is a superset of the traditional 128 ASCII characters, which also provides a number of characters suitable for use with European languages.(2) The value of `IGNORECASE' has no effect if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::). Case is always significant in compatibility mode. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Experienced C and C++ programmers will note that it is possible, using something like `IGNORECASE = 1 && /foObAr/ { ... }' and `IGNORECASE = 0 || /foobar/ { ... }'. However, this is somewhat obscure and we don't recommend it. (2) If you don't understand this, don't worry about it; it just means that `gawk' does the right thing. File: gawk.info, Node: Leftmost Longest, Next: Computed Regexps, Prev: Case-sensitivity, Up: Regexp 3.7 How Much Text Matches? ========================== Consider the following: echo aaaabcd | awk '{ sub(/a+/, "<A>"); print }' This example uses the `sub()' function (which we haven't discussed yet; *note String Functions::) to make a change to the input record. Here, the regexp `/a+/' indicates "one or more `a' characters," and the replacement text is `<A>'. The input contains four `a' characters. `awk' (and POSIX) regular expressions always match the leftmost, _longest_ sequence of input characters that can match. Thus, all four `a' characters are replaced with `<A>' in this example: $ echo aaaabcd | awk '{ sub(/a+/, "<A>"); print }' -| <A>bcd For simple match/no-match tests, this is not so important. But when doing text matching and substitutions with the `match()', `sub()', `gsub()', and `gensub()' functions, it is very important. *Note String Functions::, for more information on these functions. Understanding this principle is also important for regexp-based record and field splitting (*note Records::, and also *note Field Separators::). File: gawk.info, Node: Computed Regexps, Next: Locales, Prev: Leftmost Longest, Up: Regexp 3.8 Using Dynamic Regexps ========================= The righthand side of a `~' or `!~' operator need not be a regexp constant (i.e., a string of characters between slashes). It may be any expression. The expression is evaluated and converted to a string if necessary; the contents of the string are then used as the regexp. A regexp computed in this way is called a "dynamic regexp": BEGIN { digits_regexp = "[[:digit:]]+" } $0 ~ digits_regexp { print } This sets `digits_regexp' to a regexp that describes one or more digits, and tests whether the input record matches this regexp. NOTE: When using the `~' and `!~' operators, there is a difference between a regexp constant enclosed in slashes and a string constant enclosed in double quotes. If you are going to use a string constant, you have to understand that the string is, in essence, scanned _twice_: the first time when `awk' reads your program, and the second time when it goes to match the string on the lefthand side of the operator with the pattern on the right. This is true of any string-valued expression (such as `digits_regexp', shown previously), not just string constants. What difference does it make if the string is scanned twice? The answer has to do with escape sequences, and particularly with backslashes. To get a backslash into a regular expression inside a string, you have to type two backslashes. For example, `/\*/' is a regexp constant for a literal `*'. Only one backslash is needed. To do the same thing with a string, you have to type `"\\*"'. The first backslash escapes the second one so that the string actually contains the two characters `\' and `*'. Given that you can use both regexp and string constants to describe regular expressions, which should you use? The answer is "regexp constants," for several reasons: * String constants are more complicated to write and more difficult to read. Using regexp constants makes your programs less error-prone. Not understanding the difference between the two kinds of constants is a common source of errors. * It is more efficient to use regexp constants. `awk' can note that you have supplied a regexp and store it internally in a form that makes pattern matching more efficient. When using a string constant, `awk' must first convert the string into this internal form and then perform the pattern matching. * Using regexp constants is better form; it shows clearly that you intend a regexp match. Advanced Notes: Using `\n' in Bracket Expressions of Dynamic Regexps -------------------------------------------------------------------- Some commercial versions of `awk' do not allow the newline character to be used inside a bracket expression for a dynamic regexp: $ awk '$0 ~ "[ \t\n]"' error--> awk: newline in character class [ error--> ]... error--> source line number 1 error--> context is error--> >>> <<< But a newline in a regexp constant works with no problem: $ awk '$0 ~ /[ \t\n]/' here is a sample line -| here is a sample line Ctrl-d `gawk' does not have this problem, and it isn't likely to occur often in practice, but it's worth noting for future reference. File: gawk.info, Node: Locales, Prev: Computed Regexps, Up: Regexp 3.9 Where You Are Makes A Difference ==================================== Modern systems support the notion of "locales": a way to tell the system about the local character set and language. The current locale setting can affect the way regexp matching works, often in surprising ways. For example, in the default `"C"' locale, `[a-dx-z]' is equivalent to `[abcdxyz]'. Many locales sort characters in dictionary order, and in these locales, `[a-dx-z]' is typically not equivalent to `[abcdxyz]'; instead it might be equivalent to `[aBbCcdXxYyz]', for example. This point needs to be emphasized: Much literature teaches that you should use `[a-z]' to match a lowercase character. But on systems with non-ASCII locales, this also matches all of the uppercase characters except `Z'! This is a continuous cause of confusion, even well into the twenty-first century. NOTE: In an attempt to end the confusion once and for all, when not in POSIX mode (*note Options::), `gawk' expands ranges into the characters they include, based only on the machine character set. This restores the traditional, pre-POSIX, pre-locales behavior. However, you should read the rest of this section so that you can write portable scripts, instead of relying on behavior specific to `gawk'. To obtain the traditional interpretation of bracket expressions, you can use the `"C"' locale by setting the `LC_ALL' environment variable to the value `C'. However, it is best to just use POSIX character classes, such as `[[:lower:]]' to match specific classes of characters. To demonstrate these issues, the following example uses the `sub()' function, which does text replacement (*note String Functions::). Here, the intent is to remove trailing uppercase characters: $ echo something1234abc | gawk --posix '{ sub("[A-Z]*$", ""); print }' -| something1234a This output is unexpected, since the `bc' at the end of `something1234abc' should not normally match `[A-Z]*'. This result is due to the locale setting (and thus you may not see it on your system). There are two fixes. The first is to use the POSIX character class `[[:upper:]]', instead of `[A-Z]'. (This is preferred, since then your program will work everywhere.) The second is to change the locale setting in the environment, before running `gawk', by using the shell statements: LANG=C LC_ALL=C export LANG LC_ALL The setting `C' forces `gawk' to behave in the traditional Unix manner, where case distinctions do matter. You may wish to put these statements into your shell startup file, e.g., `$HOME/.profile'. Similar considerations apply to other ranges. For example, `["-/]' is perfectly valid in ASCII, but is not valid in many Unicode locales, such as `en_US.UTF-8'. (In general, such ranges should be avoided; either list the characters individually, or use a POSIX character class such as `[[:punct:]]'.) An additional factor relates to splitting records. For the normal case of `RS = "\n"', the locale is largely irrelevant. For other single-character record separators, using `LC_ALL=C' will give you much better performance when reading records. Otherwise, `gawk' has to make several function calls, _per input character_, to find the record terminator. According to POSIX, string comparison is also affected by locales (similar to regular expressions). The details are presented in *note POSIX String Comparison::. Finally, the locale affects the value of the decimal point character used when `gawk' parses input data. This is discussed in detail in *note Conversion::. File: gawk.info, Node: Reading Files, Next: Printing, Prev: Regexp, Up: Top 4 Reading Input Files ********************* In the typical `awk' program, `awk' reads all input either from the standard input (by default, this is the keyboard, but often it is a pipe from another command) or from files whose names you specify on the `awk' command line. If you specify input files, `awk' reads them in order, processing all the data from one before going on to the next. The name of the current input file can be found in the built-in variable `FILENAME' (*note Built-in Variables::). The input is read in units called "records", and is processed by the rules of your program one record at a time. By default, each record is one line. Each record is automatically split into chunks called "fields". This makes it more convenient for programs to work on the parts of a record. On rare occasions, you may need to use the `getline' command. The `getline' command is valuable, both because it can do explicit input from any number of files, and because the files used with it do not have to be named on the `awk' command line (*note Getline::). * Menu: * Records:: Controlling how data is split into records. * Fields:: An introduction to fields. * Nonconstant Fields:: Nonconstant Field Numbers. * Changing Fields:: Changing the Contents of a Field. * Field Separators:: The field separator and how to change it. * Constant Size:: Reading constant width data. * Splitting By Content:: Defining Fields By Content * Multiple Line:: Reading multi-line records. * Getline:: Reading files under explicit program control using the `getline' function. * Command line directories:: What happens if you put a directory on the command line. File: gawk.info, Node: Records, Next: Fields, Up: Reading Files 4.1 How Input Is Split into Records =================================== The `awk' utility divides the input for your `awk' program into records and fields. `awk' keeps track of the number of records that have been read so far from the current input file. This value is stored in a built-in variable called `FNR'. It is reset to zero when a new file is started. Another built-in variable, `NR', records the total number of input records read so far from all data files. It starts at zero, but is never automatically reset to zero. Records are separated by a character called the "record separator". By default, the record separator is the newline character. This is why records are, by default, single lines. A different character can be used for the record separator by assigning the character to the built-in variable `RS'. Like any other variable, the value of `RS' can be changed in the `awk' program with the assignment operator, `=' (*note Assignment Ops::). The new record-separator character should be enclosed in quotation marks, which indicate a string constant. Often the right time to do this is at the beginning of execution, before any input is processed, so that the very first record is read with the proper separator. To do this, use the special `BEGIN' pattern (*note BEGIN/END::). For example: awk 'BEGIN { RS = "/" } { print $0 }' BBS-list changes the value of `RS' to `"/"', before reading any input. This is a string whose first character is a slash; as a result, records are separated by slashes. Then the input file is read, and the second rule in the `awk' program (the action with no pattern) prints each record. Because each `print' statement adds a newline at the end of its output, this `awk' program copies the input with each slash changed to a newline. Here are the results of running the program on `BBS-list': $ awk 'BEGIN { RS = "/" } > { print $0 }' BBS-list -| aardvark 555-5553 1200 -| 300 B -| alpo-net 555-3412 2400 -| 1200 -| 300 A -| barfly 555-7685 1200 -| 300 A -| bites 555-1675 2400 -| 1200 -| 300 A -| camelot 555-0542 300 C -| core 555-2912 1200 -| 300 C -| fooey 555-1234 2400 -| 1200 -| 300 B -| foot 555-6699 1200 -| 300 B -| macfoo 555-6480 1200 -| 300 A -| sdace 555-3430 2400 -| 1200 -| 300 A -| sabafoo 555-2127 1200 -| 300 C -| Note that the entry for the `camelot' BBS is not split. In the original data file (*note Sample Data Files::), the line looks like this: camelot 555-0542 300 C It has one baud rate only, so there are no slashes in the record, unlike the others which have two or more baud rates. In fact, this record is treated as part of the record for the `core' BBS; the newline separating them in the output is the original newline in the data file, not the one added by `awk' when it printed the record! Another way to change the record separator is on the command line, using the variable-assignment feature (*note Other Arguments::): awk '{ print $0 }' RS="/" BBS-list This sets `RS' to `/' before processing `BBS-list'. Using an unusual character such as `/' for the record separator produces correct behavior in the vast majority of cases. However, the following (extreme) pipeline prints a surprising `1': $ echo | awk 'BEGIN { RS = "a" } ; { print NF }' -| 1 There is one field, consisting of a newline. The value of the built-in variable `NF' is the number of fields in the current record. Reaching the end of an input file terminates the current input record, even if the last character in the file is not the character in `RS'. (d.c.) The empty string `""' (a string without any characters) has a special meaning as the value of `RS'. It means that records are separated by one or more blank lines and nothing else. *Note Multiple Line::, for more details. If you change the value of `RS' in the middle of an `awk' run, the new value is used to delimit subsequent records, but the record currently being processed, as well as records already processed, are not affected. After the end of the record has been determined, `gawk' sets the variable `RT' to the text in the input that matched `RS'. When using `gawk', the value of `RS' is not limited to a one-character string. It can be any regular expression (*note Regexp::). (c.e.) In general, each record ends at the next string that matches the regular expression; the next record starts at the end of the matching string. This general rule is actually at work in the usual case, where `RS' contains just a newline: a record ends at the beginning of the next matching string (the next newline in the input), and the following record starts just after the end of this string (at the first character of the following line). The newline, because it matches `RS', is not part of either record. When `RS' is a single character, `RT' contains the same single character. However, when `RS' is a regular expression, `RT' contains the actual input text that matched the regular expression. If the input file ended without any text that matches `RS', `gawk' sets `RT' to the null string. The following example illustrates both of these features. It sets `RS' equal to a regular expression that matches either a newline or a series of one or more uppercase letters with optional leading and/or trailing whitespace: $ echo record 1 AAAA record 2 BBBB record 3 | > gawk 'BEGIN { RS = "\n|( *[[:upper:]]+ *)" } > { print "Record =", $0, "and RT =", RT }' -| Record = record 1 and RT = AAAA -| Record = record 2 and RT = BBBB -| Record = record 3 and RT = -| The final line of output has an extra blank line. This is because the value of `RT' is a newline, and the `print' statement supplies its own terminating newline. *Note Simple Sed::, for a more useful example of `RS' as a regexp and `RT'. If you set `RS' to a regular expression that allows optional trailing text, such as `RS = "abc(XYZ)?"' it is possible, due to implementation constraints, that `gawk' may match the leading part of the regular expression, but not the trailing part, particularly if the input text that could match the trailing part is fairly long. `gawk' attempts to avoid this problem, but currently, there's no guarantee that this will never happen. NOTE: Remember that in `awk', the `^' and `$' anchor metacharacters match the beginning and end of a _string_, and not the beginning and end of a _line_. As a result, something like `RS = "^[[:upper:]]"' can only match at the beginning of a file. This is because `gawk' views the input file as one long string that happens to contain newline characters in it. It is thus best to avoid anchor characters in the value of `RS'. The use of `RS' as a regular expression and the `RT' variable are `gawk' extensions; they are not available in compatibility mode (*note Options::). In compatibility mode, only the first character of the value of `RS' is used to determine the end of the record. Advanced Notes: `RS = "\0"' Is Not Portable ------------------------------------------- There are times when you might want to treat an entire data file as a single record. The only way to make this happen is to give `RS' a value that you know doesn't occur in the input file. This is hard to do in a general way, such that a program always works for arbitrary input files. You might think that for text files, the NUL character, which consists of a character with all bits equal to zero, is a good value to use for `RS' in this case: BEGIN { RS = "\0" } # whole file becomes one record? `gawk' in fact accepts this, and uses the NUL character for the record separator. However, this usage is _not_ portable to other `awk' implementations. All other `awk' implementations(1) store strings internally as C-style strings. C strings use the NUL character as the string terminator. In effect, this means that `RS = "\0"' is the same as `RS = ""'. (d.c.) The best way to treat a whole file as a single record is to simply read the file in, one record at a time, concatenating each record onto the end of the previous ones. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) At least that we know about. File: gawk.info, Node: Fields, Next: Nonconstant Fields, Prev: Records, Up: Reading Files 4.2 Examining Fields ==================== When `awk' reads an input record, the record is automatically "parsed" or separated by the `awk' utility into chunks called "fields". By default, fields are separated by "whitespace", like words in a line. Whitespace in `awk' means any string of one or more spaces, TABs, or newlines;(1) other characters, such as formfeed, vertical tab, etc., that are considered whitespace by other languages, are _not_ considered whitespace by `awk'. The purpose of fields is to make it more convenient for you to refer to these pieces of the record. You don't have to use them--you can operate on the whole record if you want--but fields are what make simple `awk' programs so powerful. A dollar-sign (`$') is used to refer to a field in an `awk' program, followed by the number of the field you want. Thus, `$1' refers to the first field, `$2' to the second, and so on. (Unlike the Unix shells, the field numbers are not limited to single digits. `$127' is the one hundred twenty-seventh field in the record.) For example, suppose the following is a line of input: This seems like a pretty nice example. Here the first field, or `$1', is `This', the second field, or `$2', is `seems', and so on. Note that the last field, `$7', is `example.'. Because there is no space between the `e' and the `.', the period is considered part of the seventh field. `NF' is a built-in variable whose value is the number of fields in the current record. `awk' automatically updates the value of `NF' each time it reads a record. No matter how many fields there are, the last field in a record can be represented by `$NF'. So, `$NF' is the same as `$7', which is `example.'. If you try to reference a field beyond the last one (such as `$8' when the record has only seven fields), you get the empty string. (If used in a numeric operation, you get zero.) The use of `$0', which looks like a reference to the "zero-th" field, is a special case: it represents the whole input record when you are not interested in specific fields. Here are some more examples: $ awk '$1 ~ /foo/ { print $0 }' BBS-list -| fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B -| foot 555-6699 1200/300 B -| macfoo 555-6480 1200/300 A -| sabafoo 555-2127 1200/300 C This example prints each record in the file `BBS-list' whose first field contains the string `foo'. The operator `~' is called a "matching operator" (*note Regexp Usage::); it tests whether a string (here, the field `$1') matches a given regular expression. By contrast, the following example looks for `foo' in _the entire record_ and prints the first field and the last field for each matching input record: $ awk '/foo/ { print $1, $NF }' BBS-list -| fooey B -| foot B -| macfoo A -| sabafoo C ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) In POSIX `awk', newlines are not considered whitespace for separating fields. File: gawk.info, Node: Nonconstant Fields, Next: Changing Fields, Prev: Fields, Up: Reading Files 4.3 Nonconstant Field Numbers ============================= The number of a field does not need to be a constant. Any expression in the `awk' language can be used after a `$' to refer to a field. The value of the expression specifies the field number. If the value is a string, rather than a number, it is converted to a number. Consider this example: awk '{ print $NR }' Recall that `NR' is the number of records read so far: one in the first record, two in the second, etc. So this example prints the first field of the first record, the second field of the second record, and so on. For the twentieth record, field number 20 is printed; most likely, the record has fewer than 20 fields, so this prints a blank line. Here is another example of using expressions as field numbers: awk '{ print $(2*2) }' BBS-list `awk' evaluates the expression `(2*2)' and uses its value as the number of the field to print. The `*' sign represents multiplication, so the expression `2*2' evaluates to four. The parentheses are used so that the multiplication is done before the `$' operation; they are necessary whenever there is a binary operator in the field-number expression. This example, then, prints the hours of operation (the fourth field) for every line of the file `BBS-list'. (All of the `awk' operators are listed, in order of decreasing precedence, in *note Precedence::.) If the field number you compute is zero, you get the entire record. Thus, `$(2-2)' has the same value as `$0'. Negative field numbers are not allowed; trying to reference one usually terminates the program. (The POSIX standard does not define what happens when you reference a negative field number. `gawk' notices this and terminates your program. Other `awk' implementations may behave differently.) As mentioned in *note Fields::, `awk' stores the current record's number of fields in the built-in variable `NF' (also *note Built-in Variables::). The expression `$NF' is not a special feature--it is the direct consequence of evaluating `NF' and using its value as a field number. File: gawk.info, Node: Changing Fields, Next: Field Separators, Prev: Nonconstant Fields, Up: Reading Files 4.4 Changing the Contents of a Field ==================================== The contents of a field, as seen by `awk', can be changed within an `awk' program; this changes what `awk' perceives as the current input record. (The actual input is untouched; `awk' _never_ modifies the input file.) Consider the following example and its output: $ awk '{ nboxes = $3 ; $3 = $3 - 10 > print nboxes, $3 }' inventory-shipped -| 25 15 -| 32 22 -| 24 14 ... The program first saves the original value of field three in the variable `nboxes'. The `-' sign represents subtraction, so this program reassigns field three, `$3', as the original value of field three minus ten: `$3 - 10'. (*Note Arithmetic Ops::.) Then it prints the original and new values for field three. (Someone in the warehouse made a consistent mistake while inventorying the red boxes.) For this to work, the text in field `$3' must make sense as a number; the string of characters must be converted to a number for the computer to do arithmetic on it. The number resulting from the subtraction is converted back to a string of characters that then becomes field three. *Note Conversion::. When the value of a field is changed (as perceived by `awk'), the text of the input record is recalculated to contain the new field where the old one was. In other words, `$0' changes to reflect the altered field. Thus, this program prints a copy of the input file, with 10 subtracted from the second field of each line: $ awk '{ $2 = $2 - 10; print $0 }' inventory-shipped -| Jan 3 25 15 115 -| Feb 5 32 24 226 -| Mar 5 24 34 228 ... It is also possible to also assign contents to fields that are out of range. For example: $ awk '{ $6 = ($5 + $4 + $3 + $2) > print $6 }' inventory-shipped -| 168 -| 297 -| 301 ... We've just created `$6', whose value is the sum of fields `$2', `$3', `$4', and `$5'. The `+' sign represents addition. For the file `inventory-shipped', `$6' represents the total number of parcels shipped for a particular month. Creating a new field changes `awk''s internal copy of the current input record, which is the value of `$0'. Thus, if you do `print $0' after adding a field, the record printed includes the new field, with the appropriate number of field separators between it and the previously existing fields. This recomputation affects and is affected by `NF' (the number of fields; *note Fields::). For example, the value of `NF' is set to the number of the highest field you create. The exact format of `$0' is also affected by a feature that has not been discussed yet: the "output field separator", `OFS', used to separate the fields (*note Output Separators::). Note, however, that merely _referencing_ an out-of-range field does _not_ change the value of either `$0' or `NF'. Referencing an out-of-range field only produces an empty string. For example: if ($(NF+1) != "") print "can't happen" else print "everything is normal" should print `everything is normal', because `NF+1' is certain to be out of range. (*Note If Statement::, for more information about `awk''s `if-else' statements. *Note Typing and Comparison::, for more information about the `!=' operator.) It is important to note that making an assignment to an existing field changes the value of `$0' but does not change the value of `NF', even when you assign the empty string to a field. For example: $ echo a b c d | awk '{ OFS = ":"; $2 = "" > print $0; print NF }' -| a::c:d -| 4 The field is still there; it just has an empty value, denoted by the two colons between `a' and `c'. This example shows what happens if you create a new field: $ echo a b c d | awk '{ OFS = ":"; $2 = ""; $6 = "new" > print $0; print NF }' -| a::c:d::new -| 6 The intervening field, `$5', is created with an empty value (indicated by the second pair of adjacent colons), and `NF' is updated with the value six. Decrementing `NF' throws away the values of the fields after the new value of `NF' and recomputes `$0'. (d.c.) Here is an example: $ echo a b c d e f | awk '{ print "NF =", NF; > NF = 3; print $0 }' -| NF = 6 -| a b c CAUTION: Some versions of `awk' don't rebuild `$0' when `NF' is decremented. Caveat emptor. Finally, there are times when it is convenient to force `awk' to rebuild the entire record, using the current value of the fields and `OFS'. To do this, use the seemingly innocuous assignment: $1 = $1 # force record to be reconstituted print $0 # or whatever else with $0 This forces `awk' rebuild the record. It does help to add a comment, as we've shown here. There is a flip side to the relationship between `$0' and the fields. Any assignment to `$0' causes the record to be reparsed into fields using the _current_ value of `FS'. This also applies to any built-in function that updates `$0', such as `sub()' and `gsub()' (*note String Functions::). Advanced Notes: Understanding `$0' ---------------------------------- It is important to remember that `$0' is the _full_ record, exactly as it was read from the input. This includes any leading or trailing whitespace, and the exact whitespace (or other characters) that separate the fields. It is a not-uncommon error to try to change the field separators in a record simply by setting `FS' and `OFS', and then expecting a plain `print' or `print $0' to print the modified record. But this does not work, since nothing was done to change the record itself. Instead, you must force the record to be rebuilt, typically with a statement such as `$1 = $1', as described earlier. File: gawk.info, Node: Field Separators, Next: Constant Size, Prev: Changing Fields, Up: Reading Files 4.5 Specifying How Fields Are Separated ======================================= * Menu: * Default Field Splitting:: How fields are normally separated. * Regexp Field Splitting:: Using regexps as the field separator. * Single Character Fields:: Making each character a separate field. * Command Line Field Separator:: Setting `FS' from the command-line. * Field Splitting Summary:: Some final points and a summary table. The "field separator", which is either a single character or a regular expression, controls the way `awk' splits an input record into fields. `awk' scans the input record for character sequences that match the separator; the fields themselves are the text between the matches. In the examples that follow, we use the bullet symbol (*) to represent spaces in the output. If the field separator is `oo', then the following line: moo goo gai pan is split into three fields: `m', `*g', and `*gai*pan'. Note the leading spaces in the values of the second and third fields. The field separator is represented by the built-in variable `FS'. Shell programmers take note: `awk' does _not_ use the name `IFS' that is used by the POSIX-compliant shells (such as the Unix Bourne shell, `sh', or Bash). The value of `FS' can be changed in the `awk' program with the assignment operator, `=' (*note Assignment Ops::). Often the right time to do this is at the beginning of execution before any input has been processed, so that the very first record is read with the proper separator. To do this, use the special `BEGIN' pattern (*note BEGIN/END::). For example, here we set the value of `FS' to the string `","': awk 'BEGIN { FS = "," } ; { print $2 }' Given the input line: John Q. Smith, 29 Oak St., Walamazoo, MI 42139 this `awk' program extracts and prints the string `*29*Oak*St.'. Sometimes the input data contains separator characters that don't separate fields the way you thought they would. For instance, the person's name in the example we just used might have a title or suffix attached, such as: John Q. Smith, LXIX, 29 Oak St., Walamazoo, MI 42139 The same program would extract `*LXIX', instead of `*29*Oak*St.'. If you were expecting the program to print the address, you would be surprised. The moral is to choose your data layout and separator characters carefully to prevent such problems. (If the data is not in a form that is easy to process, perhaps you can massage it first with a separate `awk' program.) File: gawk.info, Node: Default Field Splitting, Next: Regexp Field Splitting, Up: Field Separators 4.5.1 Whitespace Normally Separates Fields ------------------------------------------ Fields are normally separated by whitespace sequences (spaces, TABs, and newlines), not by single spaces. Two spaces in a row do not delimit an empty field. The default value of the field separator `FS' is a string containing a single space, `" "'. If `awk' interpreted this value in the usual way, each space character would separate fields, so two spaces in a row would make an empty field between them. The reason this does not happen is that a single space as the value of `FS' is a special case--it is taken to specify the default manner of delimiting fields. If `FS' is any other single character, such as `","', then each occurrence of that character separates two fields. Two consecutive occurrences delimit an empty field. If the character occurs at the beginning or the end of the line, that too delimits an empty field. The space character is the only single character that does not follow these rules. File: gawk.info, Node: Regexp Field Splitting, Next: Single Character Fields, Prev: Default Field Splitting, Up: Field Separators 4.5.2 Using Regular Expressions to Separate Fields -------------------------------------------------- The previous node discussed the use of single characters or simple strings as the value of `FS'. More generally, the value of `FS' may be a string containing any regular expression. In this case, each match in the record for the regular expression separates fields. For example, the assignment: FS = ", \t" makes every area of an input line that consists of a comma followed by a space and a TAB into a field separator. (`\t' is an "escape sequence" that stands for a TAB; *note Escape Sequences::, for the complete list of similar escape sequences.) For a less trivial example of a regular expression, try using single spaces to separate fields the way single commas are used. `FS' can be set to `"[ ]"' (left bracket, space, right bracket). This regular expression matches a single space and nothing else (*note Regexp::). There is an important difference between the two cases of `FS = " "' (a single space) and `FS = "[ \t\n]+"' (a regular expression matching one or more spaces, TABs, or newlines). For both values of `FS', fields are separated by "runs" (multiple adjacent occurrences) of spaces, TABs, and/or newlines. However, when the value of `FS' is `" "', `awk' first strips leading and trailing whitespace from the record and then decides where the fields are. For example, the following pipeline prints `b': $ echo ' a b c d ' | awk '{ print $2 }' -| b However, this pipeline prints `a' (note the extra spaces around each letter): $ echo ' a b c d ' | awk 'BEGIN { FS = "[ \t\n]+" } > { print $2 }' -| a In this case, the first field is "null" or empty. The stripping of leading and trailing whitespace also comes into play whenever `$0' is recomputed. For instance, study this pipeline: $ echo ' a b c d' | awk '{ print; $2 = $2; print }' -| a b c d -| a b c d The first `print' statement prints the record as it was read, with leading whitespace intact. The assignment to `$2' rebuilds `$0' by concatenating `$1' through `$NF' together, separated by the value of `OFS'. Because the leading whitespace was ignored when finding `$1', it is not part of the new `$0'. Finally, the last `print' statement prints the new `$0'. There is an additional subtlety to be aware of when using regular expressions for field splitting. It is not well-specified in the POSIX standard, or anywhere else, what `^' means when splitting fields. Does the `^' match only at the beginning of the entire record? Or is each field separator a new string? It turns out that different `awk' versions answer this question differently, and you should not rely on any specific behavior in your programs. (d.c.) As a point of information, Brian Kernighan's `awk' allows `^' to match only at the beginning of the record. `gawk' also works this way. For example: $ echo 'xxAA xxBxx C' | > gawk -F '(^x+)|( +)' '{ for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) > printf "-->%s<--\n", $i }' -| --><-- -| -->AA<-- -| -->xxBxx<-- -| -->C<-- File: gawk.info, Node: Single Character Fields, Next: Command Line Field Separator, Prev: Regexp Field Splitting, Up: Field Separators 4.5.3 Making Each Character a Separate Field -------------------------------------------- There are times when you may want to examine each character of a record separately. This can be done in `gawk' by simply assigning the null string (`""') to `FS'. (c.e.) In this case, each individual character in the record becomes a separate field. For example: $ echo a b | gawk 'BEGIN { FS = "" } > { > for (i = 1; i <= NF; i = i + 1) > print "Field", i, "is", $i > }' -| Field 1 is a -| Field 2 is -| Field 3 is b Traditionally, the behavior of `FS' equal to `""' was not defined. In this case, most versions of Unix `awk' simply treat the entire record as only having one field. (d.c.) In compatibility mode (*note Options::), if `FS' is the null string, then `gawk' also behaves this way. File: gawk.info, Node: Command Line Field Separator, Next: Field Splitting Summary, Prev: Single Character Fields, Up: Field Separators 4.5.4 Setting `FS' from the Command Line ---------------------------------------- `FS' can be set on the command line. Use the `-F' option to do so. For example: awk -F, 'PROGRAM' INPUT-FILES sets `FS' to the `,' character. Notice that the option uses an uppercase `F' instead of a lowercase `f'. The latter option (`-f') specifies a file containing an `awk' program. Case is significant in command-line options: the `-F' and `-f' options have nothing to do with each other. You can use both options at the same time to set the `FS' variable _and_ get an `awk' program from a file. The value used for the argument to `-F' is processed in exactly the same way as assignments to the built-in variable `FS'. Any special characters in the field separator must be escaped appropriately. For example, to use a `\' as the field separator on the command line, you would have to type: # same as FS = "\\" awk -F\\\\ '...' files ... Because `\' is used for quoting in the shell, `awk' sees `-F\\'. Then `awk' processes the `\\' for escape characters (*note Escape Sequences::), finally yielding a single `\' to use for the field separator. As a special case, in compatibility mode (*note Options::), if the argument to `-F' is `t', then `FS' is set to the TAB character. If you type `-F\t' at the shell, without any quotes, the `\' gets deleted, so `awk' figures that you really want your fields to be separated with TABs and not `t's. Use `-v FS="t"' or `-F"[t]"' on the command line if you really do want to separate your fields with `t's. As an example, let's use an `awk' program file called `baud.awk' that contains the pattern `/300/' and the action `print $1': /300/ { print $1 } Let's also set `FS' to be the `-' character and run the program on the file `BBS-list'. The following command prints a list of the names of the bulletin boards that operate at 300 baud and the first three digits of their phone numbers: $ awk -F- -f baud.awk BBS-list -| aardvark 555 -| alpo -| barfly 555 -| bites 555 -| camelot 555 -| core 555 -| fooey 555 -| foot 555 -| macfoo 555 -| sdace 555 -| sabafoo 555 Note the second line of output. The second line in the original file looked like this: alpo-net 555-3412 2400/1200/300 A The `-' as part of the system's name was used as the field separator, instead of the `-' in the phone number that was originally intended. This demonstrates why you have to be careful in choosing your field and record separators. Perhaps the most common use of a single character as the field separator occurs when processing the Unix system password file. On many Unix systems, each user has a separate entry in the system password file, one line per user. The information in these lines is separated by colons. The first field is the user's login name and the second is the user's (encrypted or shadow) password. A password file entry might look like this: arnold:xyzzy:2076:10:Arnold Robbins:/home/arnold:/bin/bash The following program searches the system password file and prints the entries for users who have no password: awk -F: '$2 == ""' /etc/passwd File: gawk.info, Node: Field Splitting Summary, Prev: Command Line Field Separator, Up: Field Separators 4.5.5 Field-Splitting Summary ----------------------------- It is important to remember that when you assign a string constant as the value of `FS', it undergoes normal `awk' string processing. For example, with Unix `awk' and `gawk', the assignment `FS = "\.."' assigns the character string `".."' to `FS' (the backslash is stripped). This creates a regexp meaning "fields are separated by occurrences of any two characters." If instead you want fields to be separated by a literal period followed by any single character, use `FS = "\\.."'. The following table summarizes how fields are split, based on the value of `FS' (`==' means "is equal to"): `FS == " "' Fields are separated by runs of whitespace. Leading and trailing whitespace are ignored. This is the default. `FS == ANY OTHER SINGLE CHARACTER' Fields are separated by each occurrence of the character. Multiple successive occurrences delimit empty fields, as do leading and trailing occurrences. The character can even be a regexp metacharacter; it does not need to be escaped. `FS == REGEXP' Fields are separated by occurrences of characters that match REGEXP. Leading and trailing matches of REGEXP delimit empty fields. `FS == ""' Each individual character in the record becomes a separate field. (This is a `gawk' extension; it is not specified by the POSIX standard.) Advanced Notes: Changing `FS' Does Not Affect the Fields -------------------------------------------------------- According to the POSIX standard, `awk' is supposed to behave as if each record is split into fields at the time it is read. In particular, this means that if you change the value of `FS' after a record is read, the value of the fields (i.e., how they were split) should reflect the old value of `FS', not the new one. However, many older implementations of `awk' do not work this way. Instead, they defer splitting the fields until a field is actually referenced. The fields are split using the _current_ value of `FS'! (d.c.) This behavior can be difficult to diagnose. The following example illustrates the difference between the two methods. (The `sed'(1) command prints just the first line of `/etc/passwd'.) sed 1q /etc/passwd | awk '{ FS = ":" ; print $1 }' which usually prints: root on an incorrect implementation of `awk', while `gawk' prints something like: root:nSijPlPhZZwgE:0:0:Root:/: Advanced Notes: `FS' and `IGNORECASE' ------------------------------------- The `IGNORECASE' variable (*note User-modified::) affects field splitting _only_ when the value of `FS' is a regexp. It has no effect when `FS' is a single character, even if that character is a letter. Thus, in the following code: FS = "c" IGNORECASE = 1 $0 = "aCa" print $1 The output is `aCa'. If you really want to split fields on an alphabetic character while ignoring case, use a regexp that will do it for you. E.g., `FS = "[c]"'. In this case, `IGNORECASE' will take effect. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The `sed' utility is a "stream editor." Its behavior is also defined by the POSIX standard. File: gawk.info, Node: Constant Size, Next: Splitting By Content, Prev: Field Separators, Up: Reading Files 4.6 Reading Fixed-Width Data ============================ (This minor node discusses an advanced feature of `awk'. If you are a novice `awk' user, you might want to skip it on the first reading.) `gawk' provides a facility for dealing with fixed-width fields with no distinctive field separator. For example, data of this nature arises in the input for old Fortran programs where numbers are run together, or in the output of programs that did not anticipate the use of their output as input for other programs. An example of the latter is a table where all the columns are lined up by the use of a variable number of spaces and _empty fields are just spaces_. Clearly, `awk''s normal field splitting based on `FS' does not work well in this case. Although a portable `awk' program can use a series of `substr()' calls on `$0' (*note String Functions::), this is awkward and inefficient for a large number of fields. The splitting of an input record into fixed-width fields is specified by assigning a string containing space-separated numbers to the built-in variable `FIELDWIDTHS'. Each number specifies the width of the field, _including_ columns between fields. If you want to ignore the columns between fields, you can specify the width as a separate field that is subsequently ignored. It is a fatal error to supply a field width that is not a positive number. The following data is the output of the Unix `w' utility. It is useful to illustrate the use of `FIELDWIDTHS': 10:06pm up 21 days, 14:04, 23 users User tty login idle JCPU PCPU what hzuo ttyV0 8:58pm 9 5 vi p24.tex hzang ttyV3 6:37pm 50 -csh eklye ttyV5 9:53pm 7 1 em thes.tex dportein ttyV6 8:17pm 1:47 -csh gierd ttyD3 10:00pm 1 elm dave ttyD4 9:47pm 4 4 w brent ttyp0 26Jun91 4:46 26:46 4:41 bash dave ttyq4 26Jun9115days 46 46 wnewmail The following program takes the above input, converts the idle time to number of seconds, and prints out the first two fields and the calculated idle time: NOTE: This program uses a number of `awk' features that haven't been introduced yet. BEGIN { FIELDWIDTHS = "9 6 10 6 7 7 35" } NR > 2 { idle = $4 sub(/^ */, "", idle) # strip leading spaces if (idle == "") idle = 0 if (idle ~ /:/) { split(idle, t, ":") idle = t[1] * 60 + t[2] } if (idle ~ /days/) idle *= 24 * 60 * 60 print $1, $2, idle } Running the program on the data produces the following results: hzuo ttyV0 0 hzang ttyV3 50 eklye ttyV5 0 dportein ttyV6 107 gierd ttyD3 1 dave ttyD4 0 brent ttyp0 286 dave ttyq4 1296000 Another (possibly more practical) example of fixed-width input data is the input from a deck of balloting cards. In some parts of the United States, voters mark their choices by punching holes in computer cards. These cards are then processed to count the votes for any particular candidate or on any particular issue. Because a voter may choose not to vote on some issue, any column on the card may be empty. An `awk' program for processing such data could use the `FIELDWIDTHS' feature to simplify reading the data. (Of course, getting `gawk' to run on a system with card readers is another story!) Assigning a value to `FS' causes `gawk' to use `FS' for field splitting again. Use `FS = FS' to make this happen, without having to know the current value of `FS'. In order to tell which kind of field splitting is in effect, use `PROCINFO["FS"]' (*note Auto-set::). The value is `"FS"' if regular field splitting is being used, or it is `"FIELDWIDTHS"' if fixed-width field splitting is being used: if (PROCINFO["FS"] == "FS") REGULAR FIELD SPLITTING ... else if (PROCINFO["FS"] == "FIELDWIDTHS") FIXED-WIDTH FIELD SPLITTING ... else CONTENT-BASED FIELD SPLITTING ... (see next minor node) This information is useful when writing a function that needs to temporarily change `FS' or `FIELDWIDTHS', read some records, and then restore the original settings (*note Passwd Functions::, for an example of such a function). File: gawk.info, Node: Splitting By Content, Next: Multiple Line, Prev: Constant Size, Up: Reading Files 4.7 Defining Fields By Content ============================== (This minor node discusses an advanced feature of `awk'. If you are a novice `awk' user, you might want to skip it on the first reading.) Normally, when using `FS', `gawk' defines the fields as the parts of the record that occur in between each field separator. In other words, `FS' defines what a field _is not_, instead of what a field _is_. However, there are times when you really want to define the fields by what they are, and not by what they are not. The most notorious such case is so-called "comma separated value" (CSV) data. Many spreadsheet programs, for example, can export their data into text files, where each record is terminated with a newline, and fields are separated by commas. If only commas separated the data, there wouldn't be an issue. The problem comes when one of the fields contains an _embedded_ comma. While there is no formal standard specification for CSV data(1), in such cases, most programs embed the field in double quotes. So we might have data like this: Robbins,Arnold,"1234 A Pretty Street, NE",MyTown,MyState,12345-6789,USA The `FPAT' variable offers a solution for cases like this. The value of `FPAT' should be a string that provides a regular expression. This regular expression describes the contents of each field. In the case of CSV data as presented above, each field is either "anything that is not a comma," or "a double quote, anything that is not a double quote, and a closing double quote." If written as a regular expression constant (*note Regexp::), we would have `/([^,]+)|("[^"]+")/'. Writing this as a string requires us to escape the double quotes, leading to: FPAT = "([^,]+)|(\"[^\"]+\")" Putting this to use, here is a simple program to parse the data: BEGIN { FPAT = "([^,]+)|(\"[^\"]+\")" } { print "NF = ", NF for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) { printf("$%d = <%s>\n", i, $i) } } When run, we get the following: $ gawk -f simple-csv.awk addresses.csv NF = 7 $1 = <Robbins> $2 = <Arnold> $3 = <"1234 A Pretty Street, NE"> $4 = <MyTown> $5 = <MyState> $6 = <12345-6789> $7 = <USA> Note the embedded comma in the value of `$3'. A straightforward improvement when processing CSV data of this sort would be to remove the quotes when they occur, with something like this: if (substr($i, 1, 1) == "\"") { len = length($i) $i = substr($i, 2, len - 2) # Get text within the two quotes } As with `FS', the `IGNORECASE' variable (*note User-modified::) affects field splitting with `FPAT'. Similar to `FIELDWIDTHS', the value of `PROCINFO["FS"]' will be `"FPAT"' if content-based field splitting is being used. NOTE: Some programs export CSV data that contains embedded newlines between the double quotes. `gawk' provides no way to deal with this. Since there is no formal specification for CSV data, there isn't much more to be done; the `FPAT' mechanism provides an elegant solution for the majority of cases, and the `gawk' maintainer is satisfied with that. As written, the regexp used for `FPAT' requires that each field have a least one character. A straightforward modification (changing changed the first `+' to `*') allows fields to be empty: FPAT = "([^,]*)|(\"[^\"]+\")" Finally, the `patsplit()' function makes the same functionality available for splitting regular strings (*note String Functions::). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) At least, we don't know of one. File: gawk.info, Node: Multiple Line, Next: Getline, Prev: Splitting By Content, Up: Reading Files 4.8 Multiple-Line Records ========================= In some databases, a single line cannot conveniently hold all the information in one entry. In such cases, you can use multiline records. The first step in doing this is to choose your data format. One technique is to use an unusual character or string to separate records. For example, you could use the formfeed character (written `\f' in `awk', as in C) to separate them, making each record a page of the file. To do this, just set the variable `RS' to `"\f"' (a string containing the formfeed character). Any other character could equally well be used, as long as it won't be part of the data in a record. Another technique is to have blank lines separate records. By a special dispensation, an empty string as the value of `RS' indicates that records are separated by one or more blank lines. When `RS' is set to the empty string, each record always ends at the first blank line encountered. The next record doesn't start until the first nonblank line that follows. No matter how many blank lines appear in a row, they all act as one record separator. (Blank lines must be completely empty; lines that contain only whitespace do not count.) You can achieve the same effect as `RS = ""' by assigning the string `"\n\n+"' to `RS'. This regexp matches the newline at the end of the record and one or more blank lines after the record. In addition, a regular expression always matches the longest possible sequence when there is a choice (*note Leftmost Longest::). So the next record doesn't start until the first nonblank line that follows--no matter how many blank lines appear in a row, they are considered one record separator. There is an important difference between `RS = ""' and `RS = "\n\n+"'. In the first case, leading newlines in the input data file are ignored, and if a file ends without extra blank lines after the last record, the final newline is removed from the record. In the second case, this special processing is not done. (d.c.) Now that the input is separated into records, the second step is to separate the fields in the record. One way to do this is to divide each of the lines into fields in the normal manner. This happens by default as the result of a special feature. When `RS' is set to the empty string, _and_ `FS' is set to a single character, the newline character _always_ acts as a field separator. This is in addition to whatever field separations result from `FS'.(1) The original motivation for this special exception was probably to provide useful behavior in the default case (i.e., `FS' is equal to `" "'). This feature can be a problem if you really don't want the newline character to separate fields, because there is no way to prevent it. However, you can work around this by using the `split()' function to break up the record manually (*note String Functions::). If you have a single character field separator, you can work around the special feature in a different way, by making `FS' into a regexp for that single character. For example, if the field separator is a percent character, instead of `FS = "%"', use `FS = "[%]"'. Another way to separate fields is to put each field on a separate line: to do this, just set the variable `FS' to the string `"\n"'. (This single character separator matches a single newline.) A practical example of a data file organized this way might be a mailing list, where each entry is separated by blank lines. Consider a mailing list in a file named `addresses', which looks like this: Jane Doe 123 Main Street Anywhere, SE 12345-6789 John Smith 456 Tree-lined Avenue Smallville, MW 98765-4321 ... A simple program to process this file is as follows: # addrs.awk --- simple mailing list program # Records are separated by blank lines. # Each line is one field. BEGIN { RS = "" ; FS = "\n" } { print "Name is:", $1 print "Address is:", $2 print "City and State are:", $3 print "" } Running the program produces the following output: $ awk -f addrs.awk addresses -| Name is: Jane Doe -| Address is: 123 Main Street -| City and State are: Anywhere, SE 12345-6789 -| -| Name is: John Smith -| Address is: 456 Tree-lined Avenue -| City and State are: Smallville, MW 98765-4321 -| ... *Note Labels Program::, for a more realistic program that deals with address lists. The following table summarizes how records are split, based on the value of `RS'. (`==' means "is equal to.") `RS == "\n"' Records are separated by the newline character (`\n'). In effect, every line in the data file is a separate record, including blank lines. This is the default. `RS == ANY SINGLE CHARACTER' Records are separated by each occurrence of the character. Multiple successive occurrences delimit empty records. `RS == ""' Records are separated by runs of blank lines. When `FS' is a single character, then the newline character always serves as a field separator, in addition to whatever value `FS' may have. Leading and trailing newlines in a file are ignored. `RS == REGEXP' Records are separated by occurrences of characters that match REGEXP. Leading and trailing matches of REGEXP delimit empty records. (This is a `gawk' extension; it is not specified by the POSIX standard.) In all cases, `gawk' sets `RT' to the input text that matched the value specified by `RS'. But if the input file ended without any text that matches `RS', then `gawk' sets `RT' to the null string. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) When `FS' is the null string (`""') or a regexp, this special feature of `RS' does not apply. It does apply to the default field separator of a single space: `FS = " "'. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline, Next: Command line directories, Prev: Multiple Line, Up: Reading Files 4.9 Explicit Input with `getline' ================================= So far we have been getting our input data from `awk''s main input stream--either the standard input (usually your terminal, sometimes the output from another program) or from the files specified on the command line. The `awk' language has a special built-in command called `getline' that can be used to read input under your explicit control. The `getline' command is used in several different ways and should _not_ be used by beginners. The examples that follow the explanation of the `getline' command include material that has not been covered yet. Therefore, come back and study the `getline' command _after_ you have reviewed the rest of this Info file and have a good knowledge of how `awk' works. The `getline' command returns one if it finds a record and zero if it encounters the end of the file. If there is some error in getting a record, such as a file that cannot be opened, then `getline' returns -1. In this case, `gawk' sets the variable `ERRNO' to a string describing the error that occurred. In the following examples, COMMAND stands for a string value that represents a shell command. NOTE: When `--sandbox' is specified (*note Options::), reading lines from files, pipes and coprocesses is disabled. * Menu: * Plain Getline:: Using `getline' with no arguments. * Getline/Variable:: Using `getline' into a variable. * Getline/File:: Using `getline' from a file. * Getline/Variable/File:: Using `getline' into a variable from a file. * Getline/Pipe:: Using `getline' from a pipe. * Getline/Variable/Pipe:: Using `getline' into a variable from a pipe. * Getline/Coprocess:: Using `getline' from a coprocess. * Getline/Variable/Coprocess:: Using `getline' into a variable from a coprocess. * Getline Notes:: Important things to know about `getline'. * Getline Summary:: Summary of `getline' Variants. File: gawk.info, Node: Plain Getline, Next: Getline/Variable, Up: Getline 4.9.1 Using `getline' with No Arguments --------------------------------------- The `getline' command can be used without arguments to read input from the current input file. All it does in this case is read the next input record and split it up into fields. This is useful if you've finished processing the current record, but want to do some special processing on the next record _right now_. For example: { if ((t = index($0, "/*")) != 0) { # value of `tmp' will be "" if t is 1 tmp = substr($0, 1, t - 1) u = index(substr($0, t + 2), "*/") offset = t + 2 while (u == 0) { if (getline <= 0) { m = "unexpected EOF or error" m = (m ": " ERRNO) print m > "/dev/stderr" exit } u = index($0, "*/") offset = 0 } # substr() expression will be "" if */ # occurred at end of line $0 = tmp substr($0, offset + u + 2) } print $0 } This `awk' program deletes C-style comments (`/* ... */') from the input. By replacing the `print $0' with other statements, you could perform more complicated processing on the decommented input, such as searching for matches of a regular expression. (This program has a subtle problem--it does not work if one comment ends and another begins on the same line.) This form of the `getline' command sets `NF', `NR', `FNR', and the value of `$0'. NOTE: The new value of `$0' is used to test the patterns of any subsequent rules. The original value of `$0' that triggered the rule that executed `getline' is lost. By contrast, the `next' statement reads a new record but immediately begins processing it normally, starting with the first rule in the program. *Note Next Statement::. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline/Variable, Next: Getline/File, Prev: Plain Getline, Up: Getline 4.9.2 Using `getline' into a Variable ------------------------------------- You can use `getline VAR' to read the next record from `awk''s input into the variable VAR. No other processing is done. For example, suppose the next line is a comment or a special string, and you want to read it without triggering any rules. This form of `getline' allows you to read that line and store it in a variable so that the main read-a-line-and-check-each-rule loop of `awk' never sees it. The following example swaps every two lines of input: { if ((getline tmp) > 0) { print tmp print $0 } else print $0 } It takes the following list: wan tew free phore and produces these results: tew wan phore free The `getline' command used in this way sets only the variables `NR' and `FNR' (and of course, VAR). The record is not split into fields, so the values of the fields (including `$0') and the value of `NF' do not change. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline/File, Next: Getline/Variable/File, Prev: Getline/Variable, Up: Getline 4.9.3 Using `getline' from a File --------------------------------- Use `getline < FILE' to read the next record from FILE. Here FILE is a string-valued expression that specifies the file name. `< FILE' is called a "redirection" because it directs input to come from a different place. For example, the following program reads its input record from the file `secondary.input' when it encounters a first field with a value equal to 10 in the current input file: { if ($1 == 10) { getline < "secondary.input" print } else print } Because the main input stream is not used, the values of `NR' and `FNR' are not changed. However, the record it reads is split into fields in the normal manner, so the values of `$0' and the other fields are changed, resulting in a new value of `NF'. According to POSIX, `getline < EXPRESSION' is ambiguous if EXPRESSION contains unparenthesized operators other than `$'; for example, `getline < dir "/" file' is ambiguous because the concatenation operator is not parenthesized. You should write it as `getline < (dir "/" file)' if you want your program to be portable to all `awk' implementations. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline/Variable/File, Next: Getline/Pipe, Prev: Getline/File, Up: Getline 4.9.4 Using `getline' into a Variable from a File ------------------------------------------------- Use `getline VAR < FILE' to read input from the file FILE, and put it in the variable VAR. As above, FILE is a string-valued expression that specifies the file from which to read. In this version of `getline', none of the built-in variables are changed and the record is not split into fields. The only variable changed is VAR.(1) For example, the following program copies all the input files to the output, except for records that say `@include FILENAME'. Such a record is replaced by the contents of the file FILENAME: { if (NF == 2 && $1 == "@include") { while ((getline line < $2) > 0) print line close($2) } else print } Note here how the name of the extra input file is not built into the program; it is taken directly from the data, specifically from the second field on the `@include' line. The `close()' function is called to ensure that if two identical `@include' lines appear in the input, the entire specified file is included twice. *Note Close Files And Pipes::. One deficiency of this program is that it does not process nested `@include' statements (i.e., `@include' statements in included files) the way a true macro preprocessor would. *Note Igawk Program::, for a program that does handle nested `@include' statements. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This is not quite true. `RT' could be changed if `RS' is a regular expression. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline/Pipe, Next: Getline/Variable/Pipe, Prev: Getline/Variable/File, Up: Getline 4.9.5 Using `getline' from a Pipe --------------------------------- The output of a command can also be piped into `getline', using `COMMAND | getline'. In this case, the string COMMAND is run as a shell command and its output is piped into `awk' to be used as input. This form of `getline' reads one record at a time from the pipe. For example, the following program copies its input to its output, except for lines that begin with `@execute', which are replaced by the output produced by running the rest of the line as a shell command: { if ($1 == "@execute") { tmp = substr($0, 10) # Remove "@execute" while ((tmp | getline) > 0) print close(tmp) } else print } The `close()' function is called to ensure that if two identical `@execute' lines appear in the input, the command is run for each one. *Note Close Files And Pipes::. Given the input: foo bar baz @execute who bletch the program might produce: foo bar baz arnold ttyv0 Jul 13 14:22 miriam ttyp0 Jul 13 14:23 (murphy:0) bill ttyp1 Jul 13 14:23 (murphy:0) bletch Notice that this program ran the command `who' and printed the previous result. (If you try this program yourself, you will of course get different results, depending upon who is logged in on your system.) This variation of `getline' splits the record into fields, sets the value of `NF', and recomputes the value of `$0'. The values of `NR' and `FNR' are not changed. According to POSIX, `EXPRESSION | getline' is ambiguous if EXPRESSION contains unparenthesized operators other than `$'--for example, `"echo " "date" | getline' is ambiguous because the concatenation operator is not parenthesized. You should write it as `("echo " "date") | getline' if you want your program to be portable to all `awk' implementations. NOTE: Unfortunately, `gawk' has not been consistent in its treatment of a construct like `"echo " "date" | getline'. Most versions, including the current version, treat it at as `("echo " "date") | getline'. (This how Brian Kernighan's `awk' behaves.) Some versions changed and treated it as `"echo " ("date" | getline)'. (This is how `mawk' behaves.) In short, _always_ use explicit parentheses, and then you won't have to worry. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline/Variable/Pipe, Next: Getline/Coprocess, Prev: Getline/Pipe, Up: Getline 4.9.6 Using `getline' into a Variable from a Pipe ------------------------------------------------- When you use `COMMAND | getline VAR', the output of COMMAND is sent through a pipe to `getline' and into the variable VAR. For example, the following program reads the current date and time into the variable `current_time', using the `date' utility, and then prints it: BEGIN { "date" | getline current_time close("date") print "Report printed on " current_time } In this version of `getline', none of the built-in variables are changed and the record is not split into fields. According to POSIX, `EXPRESSION | getline VAR' is ambiguous if EXPRESSION contains unparenthesized operators other than `$'; for example, `"echo " "date" | getline VAR' is ambiguous because the concatenation operator is not parenthesized. You should write it as `("echo " "date") | getline VAR' if you want your program to be portable to other `awk' implementations. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline/Coprocess, Next: Getline/Variable/Coprocess, Prev: Getline/Variable/Pipe, Up: Getline 4.9.7 Using `getline' from a Coprocess -------------------------------------- Input into `getline' from a pipe is a one-way operation. The command that is started with `COMMAND | getline' only sends data _to_ your `awk' program. On occasion, you might want to send data to another program for processing and then read the results back. `gawk' allows you to start a "coprocess", with which two-way communications are possible. This is done with the `|&' operator. Typically, you write data to the coprocess first and then read results back, as shown in the following: print "SOME QUERY" |& "db_server" "db_server" |& getline which sends a query to `db_server' and then reads the results. The values of `NR' and `FNR' are not changed, because the main input stream is not used. However, the record is split into fields in the normal manner, thus changing the values of `$0', of the other fields, and of `NF'. Coprocesses are an advanced feature. They are discussed here only because this is the minor node on `getline'. *Note Two-way I/O::, where coprocesses are discussed in more detail. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline/Variable/Coprocess, Next: Getline Notes, Prev: Getline/Coprocess, Up: Getline 4.9.8 Using `getline' into a Variable from a Coprocess ------------------------------------------------------ When you use `COMMAND |& getline VAR', the output from the coprocess COMMAND is sent through a two-way pipe to `getline' and into the variable VAR. In this version of `getline', none of the built-in variables are changed and the record is not split into fields. The only variable changed is VAR. Coprocesses are an advanced feature. They are discussed here only because this is the minor node on `getline'. *Note Two-way I/O::, where coprocesses are discussed in more detail. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline Notes, Next: Getline Summary, Prev: Getline/Variable/Coprocess, Up: Getline 4.9.9 Points to Remember About `getline' ---------------------------------------- Here are some miscellaneous points about `getline' that you should bear in mind: * When `getline' changes the value of `$0' and `NF', `awk' does _not_ automatically jump to the start of the program and start testing the new record against every pattern. However, the new record is tested against any subsequent rules. * Many `awk' implementations limit the number of pipelines that an `awk' program may have open to just one. In `gawk', there is no such limit. You can open as many pipelines (and coprocesses) as the underlying operating system permits. * An interesting side effect occurs if you use `getline' without a redirection inside a `BEGIN' rule. Because an unredirected `getline' reads from the command-line data files, the first `getline' command causes `awk' to set the value of `FILENAME'. Normally, `FILENAME' does not have a value inside `BEGIN' rules, because you have not yet started to process the command-line data files. (d.c.) (*Note BEGIN/END::, also *note Auto-set::.) * Using `FILENAME' with `getline' (`getline < FILENAME') is likely to be a source for confusion. `awk' opens a separate input stream from the current input file. However, by not using a variable, `$0' and `NR' are still updated. If you're doing this, it's probably by accident, and you should reconsider what it is you're trying to accomplish. * *note Getline Summary::, presents a table summarizing the `getline' variants and which variables they can affect. It is worth noting that those variants which do not use redirection can cause `FILENAME' to be updated if they cause `awk' to start reading a new input file. File: gawk.info, Node: Getline Summary, Prev: Getline Notes, Up: Getline 4.9.10 Summary of `getline' Variants ------------------------------------ *note table-getline-variants:: summarizes the eight variants of `getline', listing which built-in variables are set by each one, and whether the variant is standard or a `gawk' extension. Variant Effect Standard / Extension ------------------------------------------------------------------------- `getline' Sets `$0', `NF', `FNR', Standard and `NR' `getline' VAR Sets VAR, `FNR', and `NR' Standard `getline <' FILE Sets `$0' and `NF' Standard `getline VAR < FILE' Sets VAR Standard COMMAND `| getline' Sets `$0' and `NF' Standard COMMAND `| getline' VAR Sets VAR Standard COMMAND `|& getline' Sets `$0' and `NF' Extension COMMAND `|& getline' Sets VAR Extension VAR Table 4.1: getline Variants and What They Set File: gawk.info, Node: Command line directories, Prev: Getline, Up: Reading Files 4.10 Directories On The Command Line ==================================== According to the POSIX standard, files named on the `awk' command line must be text files. It is a fatal error if they are not. Most versions of `awk' treat a directory on the command line as a fatal error. By default, `gawk' produces a warning for a directory on the command line, but otherwise ignores it. If either of the `--posix' or `--traditional' options is given, then `gawk' reverts to treating a directory on the command line as a fatal error. File: gawk.info, Node: Printing, Next: Expressions, Prev: Reading Files, Up: Top 5 Printing Output ***************** One of the most common programming actions is to "print", or output, some or all of the input. Use the `print' statement for simple output, and the `printf' statement for fancier formatting. The `print' statement is not limited when computing _which_ values to print. However, with two exceptions, you cannot specify _how_ to print them--how many columns, whether to use exponential notation or not, and so on. (For the exceptions, *note Output Separators::, and *note OFMT::.) For printing with specifications, you need the `printf' statement (*note Printf::). Besides basic and formatted printing, this major node also covers I/O redirections to files and pipes, introduces the special file names that `gawk' processes internally, and discusses the `close()' built-in function. * Menu: * Print:: The `print' statement. * Print Examples:: Simple examples of `print' statements. * Output Separators:: The output separators and how to change them. * OFMT:: Controlling Numeric Output With `print'. * Printf:: The `printf' statement. * Redirection:: How to redirect output to multiple files and pipes. * Special Files:: File name interpretation in `gawk'. `gawk' allows access to inherited file descriptors. * Close Files And Pipes:: Closing Input and Output Files and Pipes. File: gawk.info, Node: Print, Next: Print Examples, Up: Printing 5.1 The `print' Statement ========================= The `print' statement is used for producing output with simple, standardized formatting. Specify only the strings or numbers to print, in a list separated by commas. They are output, separated by single spaces, followed by a newline. The statement looks like this: print ITEM1, ITEM2, ... The entire list of items may be optionally enclosed in parentheses. The parentheses are necessary if any of the item expressions uses the `>' relational operator; otherwise it could be confused with an output redirection (*note Redirection::). The items to print can be constant strings or numbers, fields of the current record (such as `$1'), variables, or any `awk' expression. Numeric values are converted to strings and then printed. The simple statement `print' with no items is equivalent to `print $0': it prints the entire current record. To print a blank line, use `print ""', where `""' is the empty string. To print a fixed piece of text, use a string constant, such as `"Don't Panic"', as one item. If you forget to use the double-quote characters, your text is taken as an `awk' expression, and you will probably get an error. Keep in mind that a space is printed between any two items. File: gawk.info, Node: Print Examples, Next: Output Separators, Prev: Print, Up: Printing 5.2 `print' Statement Examples ============================== Each `print' statement makes at least one line of output. However, it isn't limited to only one line. If an item value is a string containing a newline, the newline is output along with the rest of the string. A single `print' statement can make any number of lines this way. The following is an example of printing a string that contains embedded newlines (the `\n' is an escape sequence, used to represent the newline character; *note Escape Sequences::): $ awk 'BEGIN { print "line one\nline two\nline three" }' -| line one -| line two -| line three The next example, which is run on the `inventory-shipped' file, prints the first two fields of each input record, with a space between them: $ awk '{ print $1, $2 }' inventory-shipped -| Jan 13 -| Feb 15 -| Mar 15 ... A common mistake in using the `print' statement is to omit the comma between two items. This often has the effect of making the items run together in the output, with no space. The reason for this is that juxtaposing two string expressions in `awk' means to concatenate them. Here is the same program, without the comma: $ awk '{ print $1 $2 }' inventory-shipped -| Jan13 -| Feb15 -| Mar15 ... To someone unfamiliar with the `inventory-shipped' file, neither example's output makes much sense. A heading line at the beginning would make it clearer. Let's add some headings to our table of months (`$1') and green crates shipped (`$2'). We do this using the `BEGIN' pattern (*note BEGIN/END::) so that the headings are only printed once: awk 'BEGIN { print "Month Crates" print "----- ------" } { print $1, $2 }' inventory-shipped When run, the program prints the following: Month Crates ----- ------ Jan 13 Feb 15 Mar 15 ... The only problem, however, is that the headings and the table data don't line up! We can fix this by printing some spaces between the two fields: awk 'BEGIN { print "Month Crates" print "----- ------" } { print $1, " ", $2 }' inventory-shipped Lining up columns this way can get pretty complicated when there are many columns to fix. Counting spaces for two or three columns is simple, but any more than this can take up a lot of time. This is why the `printf' statement was created (*note Printf::); one of its specialties is lining up columns of data. NOTE: You can continue either a `print' or `printf' statement simply by putting a newline after any comma (*note Statements/Lines::). File: gawk.info, Node: Output Separators, Next: OFMT, Prev: Print Examples, Up: Printing 5.3 Output Separators ===================== As mentioned previously, a `print' statement contains a list of items separated by commas. In the output, the items are normally separated by single spaces. However, this doesn't need to be the case; a single space is simply the default. Any string of characters may be used as the "output field separator" by setting the built-in variable `OFS'. The initial value of this variable is the string `" "'--that is, a single space. The output from an entire `print' statement is called an "output record". Each `print' statement outputs one output record, and then outputs a string called the "output record separator" (or `ORS'). The initial value of `ORS' is the string `"\n"'; i.e., a newline character. Thus, each `print' statement normally makes a separate line. In order to change how output fields and records are separated, assign new values to the variables `OFS' and `ORS'. The usual place to do this is in the `BEGIN' rule (*note BEGIN/END::), so that it happens before any input is processed. It can also be done with assignments on the command line, before the names of the input files, or using the `-v' command-line option (*note Options::). The following example prints the first and second fields of each input record, separated by a semicolon, with a blank line added after each newline: $ awk 'BEGIN { OFS = ";"; ORS = "\n\n" } > { print $1, $2 }' BBS-list -| aardvark;555-5553 -| -| alpo-net;555-3412 -| -| barfly;555-7685 ... If the value of `ORS' does not contain a newline, the program's output runs together on a single line. File: gawk.info, Node: OFMT, Next: Printf, Prev: Output Separators, Up: Printing 5.4 Controlling Numeric Output with `print' =========================================== When printing numeric values with the `print' statement, `awk' internally converts the number to a string of characters and prints that string. `awk' uses the `sprintf()' function to do this conversion (*note String Functions::). For now, it suffices to say that the `sprintf()' function accepts a "format specification" that tells it how to format numbers (or strings), and that there are a number of different ways in which numbers can be formatted. The different format specifications are discussed more fully in *note Control Letters::. The built-in variable `OFMT' contains the default format specification that `print' uses with `sprintf()' when it wants to convert a number to a string for printing. The default value of `OFMT' is `"%.6g"'. The way `print' prints numbers can be changed by supplying different format specifications as the value of `OFMT', as shown in the following example: $ awk 'BEGIN { > OFMT = "%.0f" # print numbers as integers (rounds) > print 17.23, 17.54 }' -| 17 18 According to the POSIX standard, `awk''s behavior is undefined if `OFMT' contains anything but a floating-point conversion specification. (d.c.) File: gawk.info, Node: Printf, Next: Redirection, Prev: OFMT, Up: Printing 5.5 Using `printf' Statements for Fancier Printing ================================================== For more precise control over the output format than what is provided by `print', use `printf'. With `printf' you can specify the width to use for each item, as well as various formatting choices for numbers (such as what output base to use, whether to print an exponent, whether to print a sign, and how many digits to print after the decimal point). You do this by supplying a string, called the "format string", that controls how and where to print the other arguments. * Menu: * Basic Printf:: Syntax of the `printf' statement. * Control Letters:: Format-control letters. * Format Modifiers:: Format-specification modifiers. * Printf Examples:: Several examples. File: gawk.info, Node: Basic Printf, Next: Control Letters, Up: Printf 5.5.1 Introduction to the `printf' Statement -------------------------------------------- A simple `printf' statement looks like this: printf FORMAT, ITEM1, ITEM2, ... The entire list of arguments may optionally be enclosed in parentheses. The parentheses are necessary if any of the item expressions use the `>' relational operator; otherwise, it can be confused with an output redirection (*note Redirection::). The difference between `printf' and `print' is the FORMAT argument. This is an expression whose value is taken as a string; it specifies how to output each of the other arguments. It is called the "format string". The format string is very similar to that in the ISO C library function `printf()'. Most of FORMAT is text to output verbatim. Scattered among this text are "format specifiers"--one per item. Each format specifier says to output the next item in the argument list at that place in the format. The `printf' statement does not automatically append a newline to its output. It outputs only what the format string specifies. So if a newline is needed, you must include one in the format string. The output separator variables `OFS' and `ORS' have no effect on `printf' statements. For example: $ awk 'BEGIN { > ORS = "\nOUCH!\n"; OFS = "+" > msg = "Dont Panic!" > printf "%s\n", msg > }' -| Dont Panic! Here, neither the `+' nor the `OUCH' appear in the output message. File: gawk.info, Node: Control Letters, Next: Format Modifiers, Prev: Basic Printf, Up: Printf 5.5.2 Format-Control Letters ---------------------------- A format specifier starts with the character `%' and ends with a "format-control letter"--it tells the `printf' statement how to output one item. The format-control letter specifies what _kind_ of value to print. The rest of the format specifier is made up of optional "modifiers" that control _how_ to print the value, such as the field width. Here is a list of the format-control letters: `%c' Print a number as an ASCII character; thus, `printf "%c", 65' outputs the letter `A'. The output for a string value is the first character of the string. NOTE: The POSIX standard says the first character of a string is printed. In locales with multibyte characters, `gawk' attempts to convert the leading bytes of the string into a valid wide character and then to print the multibyte encoding of that character. Similarly, when printing a numeric value, `gawk' allows the value to be within the numeric range of values that can be held in a wide character. Other `awk' versions generally restrict themselves to printing the first byte of a string or to numeric values within the range of a single byte (0-255). `%d, %i' Print a decimal integer. The two control letters are equivalent. (The `%i' specification is for compatibility with ISO C.) `%e, %E' Print a number in scientific (exponential) notation; for example: printf "%4.3e\n", 1950 prints `1.950e+03', with a total of four significant figures, three of which follow the decimal point. (The `4.3' represents two modifiers, discussed in the next node.) `%E' uses `E' instead of `e' in the output. `%f' Print a number in floating-point notation. For example: printf "%4.3f", 1950 prints `1950.000', with a total of four significant figures, three of which follow the decimal point. (The `4.3' represents two modifiers, discussed in the next node.) On systems supporting IEEE 754 floating point format, values representing negative infinity are formatted as `-inf' or `-infinity', and positive infinity as `inf' and `infinity'. The special "not a number" value formats as `-nan' or `nan'. `%F' Like `%f' but the infinity and "not a number" values are spelled using uppercase letters. The `%F' format is a POSIX extension to ISO C; not all systems support it. On those that don't, `gawk' uses `%f' instead. `%g, %G' Print a number in either scientific notation or in floating-point notation, whichever uses fewer characters; if the result is printed in scientific notation, `%G' uses `E' instead of `e'. `%o' Print an unsigned octal integer (*note Nondecimal-numbers::). `%s' Print a string. `%u' Print an unsigned decimal integer. (This format is of marginal use, because all numbers in `awk' are floating-point; it is provided primarily for compatibility with C.) `%x, %X' Print an unsigned hexadecimal integer; `%X' uses the letters `A' through `F' instead of `a' through `f' (*note Nondecimal-numbers::). `%%' Print a single `%'. This does not consume an argument and it ignores any modifiers. NOTE: When using the integer format-control letters for values that are outside the range of the widest C integer type, `gawk' switches to the `%g' format specifier. If `--lint' is provided on the command line (*note Options::), `gawk' warns about this. Other versions of `awk' may print invalid values or do something else entirely. (d.c.) File: gawk.info, Node: Format Modifiers, Next: Printf Examples, Prev: Control Letters, Up: Printf 5.5.3 Modifiers for `printf' Formats ------------------------------------ A format specification can also include "modifiers" that can control how much of the item's value is printed, as well as how much space it gets. The modifiers come between the `%' and the format-control letter. We will use the bullet symbol "*" in the following examples to represent spaces in the output. Here are the possible modifiers, in the order in which they may appear: `N$' An integer constant followed by a `$' is a "positional specifier". Normally, format specifications are applied to arguments in the order given in the format string. With a positional specifier, the format specification is applied to a specific argument, instead of what would be the next argument in the list. Positional specifiers begin counting with one. Thus: printf "%s %s\n", "don't", "panic" printf "%2$s %1$s\n", "panic", "don't" prints the famous friendly message twice. At first glance, this feature doesn't seem to be of much use. It is in fact a `gawk' extension, intended for use in translating messages at runtime. *Note Printf Ordering::, which describes how and why to use positional specifiers. For now, we will not use them. `-' The minus sign, used before the width modifier (see later on in this list), says to left-justify the argument within its specified width. Normally, the argument is printed right-justified in the specified width. Thus: printf "%-4s", "foo" prints `foo*'. `SPACE' For numeric conversions, prefix positive values with a space and negative values with a minus sign. `+' The plus sign, used before the width modifier (see later on in this list), says to always supply a sign for numeric conversions, even if the data to format is positive. The `+' overrides the space modifier. `#' Use an "alternate form" for certain control letters. For `%o', supply a leading zero. For `%x' and `%X', supply a leading `0x' or `0X' for a nonzero result. For `%e', `%E', `%f', and `%F', the result always contains a decimal point. For `%g' and `%G', trailing zeros are not removed from the result. `0' A leading `0' (zero) acts as a flag that indicates that output should be padded with zeros instead of spaces. This applies only to the numeric output formats. This flag only has an effect when the field width is wider than the value to print. `'' A single quote or apostrophe character is a POSIX extension to ISO C. It indicates that the integer part of a floating point value, or the entire part of an integer decimal value, should have a thousands-separator character in it. This only works in locales that support such characters. For example: $ cat thousands.awk Show source program -| BEGIN { printf "%'d\n", 1234567 } $ LC_ALL=C gawk -f thousands.awk -| 1234567 Results in "C" locale $ LC_ALL=en_US.UTF-8 gawk -f thousands.awk -| 1,234,567 Results in US English UTF locale For more information about locales and internationalization issues, see *note Locales::. NOTE: The `'' flag is a nice feature, but its use complicates things: it becomes difficult to use it in command-line programs. For information on appropriate quoting tricks, see *note Quoting::. `WIDTH' This is a number specifying the desired minimum width of a field. Inserting any number between the `%' sign and the format-control character forces the field to expand to this width. The default way to do this is to pad with spaces on the left. For example: printf "%4s", "foo" prints `*foo'. The value of WIDTH is a minimum width, not a maximum. If the item value requires more than WIDTH characters, it can be as wide as necessary. Thus, the following: printf "%4s", "foobar" prints `foobar'. Preceding the WIDTH with a minus sign causes the output to be padded with spaces on the right, instead of on the left. `.PREC' A period followed by an integer constant specifies the precision to use when printing. The meaning of the precision varies by control letter: `%d', `%i', `%o', `%u', `%x', `%X' Minimum number of digits to print. `%e', `%E', `%f', `%F' Number of digits to the right of the decimal point. `%g', `%G' Maximum number of significant digits. `%s' Maximum number of characters from the string that should print. Thus, the following: printf "%.4s", "foobar" prints `foob'. The C library `printf''s dynamic WIDTH and PREC capability (for example, `"%*.*s"') is supported. Instead of supplying explicit WIDTH and/or PREC values in the format string, they are passed in the argument list. For example: w = 5 p = 3 s = "abcdefg" printf "%*.*s\n", w, p, s is exactly equivalent to: s = "abcdefg" printf "%5.3s\n", s Both programs output `**abc'. Earlier versions of `awk' did not support this capability. If you must use such a version, you may simulate this feature by using concatenation to build up the format string, like so: w = 5 p = 3 s = "abcdefg" printf "%" w "." p "s\n", s This is not particularly easy to read but it does work. C programmers may be used to supplying additional `l', `L', and `h' modifiers in `printf' format strings. These are not valid in `awk'. Most `awk' implementations silently ignore them. If `--lint' is provided on the command line (*note Options::), `gawk' warns about their use. If `--posix' is supplied, their use is a fatal error. File: gawk.info, Node: Printf Examples, Prev: Format Modifiers, Up: Printf 5.5.4 Examples Using `printf' ----------------------------- The following simple example shows how to use `printf' to make an aligned table: awk '{ printf "%-10s %s\n", $1, $2 }' BBS-list This command prints the names of the bulletin boards (`$1') in the file `BBS-list' as a string of 10 characters that are left-justified. It also prints the phone numbers (`$2') next on the line. This produces an aligned two-column table of names and phone numbers, as shown here: $ awk '{ printf "%-10s %s\n", $1, $2 }' BBS-list -| aardvark 555-5553 -| alpo-net 555-3412 -| barfly 555-7685 -| bites 555-1675 -| camelot 555-0542 -| core 555-2912 -| fooey 555-1234 -| foot 555-6699 -| macfoo 555-6480 -| sdace 555-3430 -| sabafoo 555-2127 In this case, the phone numbers had to be printed as strings because the numbers are separated by a dash. Printing the phone numbers as numbers would have produced just the first three digits: `555'. This would have been pretty confusing. It wasn't necessary to specify a width for the phone numbers because they are last on their lines. They don't need to have spaces after them. The table could be made to look even nicer by adding headings to the tops of the columns. This is done using the `BEGIN' pattern (*note BEGIN/END::) so that the headers are only printed once, at the beginning of the `awk' program: awk 'BEGIN { print "Name Number" print "---- ------" } { printf "%-10s %s\n", $1, $2 }' BBS-list The above example mixes `print' and `printf' statements in the same program. Using just `printf' statements can produce the same results: awk 'BEGIN { printf "%-10s %s\n", "Name", "Number" printf "%-10s %s\n", "----", "------" } { printf "%-10s %s\n", $1, $2 }' BBS-list Printing each column heading with the same format specification used for the column elements ensures that the headings are aligned just like the columns. The fact that the same format specification is used three times can be emphasized by storing it in a variable, like this: awk 'BEGIN { format = "%-10s %s\n" printf format, "Name", "Number" printf format, "----", "------" } { printf format, $1, $2 }' BBS-list At this point, it would be a worthwhile exercise to use the `printf' statement to line up the headings and table data for the `inventory-shipped' example that was covered earlier in the minor node on the `print' statement (*note Print::). File: gawk.info, Node: Redirection, Next: Special Files, Prev: Printf, Up: Printing 5.6 Redirecting Output of `print' and `printf' ============================================== So far, the output from `print' and `printf' has gone to the standard output, usually the screen. Both `print' and `printf' can also send their output to other places. This is called "redirection". NOTE: When `--sandbox' is specified (*note Options::), redirecting output to files and pipes is disabled. A redirection appears after the `print' or `printf' statement. Redirections in `awk' are written just like redirections in shell commands, except that they are written inside the `awk' program. There are four forms of output redirection: output to a file, output appended to a file, output through a pipe to another command, and output to a coprocess. They are all shown for the `print' statement, but they work identically for `printf': `print ITEMS > OUTPUT-FILE' This redirection prints the items into the output file named OUTPUT-FILE. The file name OUTPUT-FILE can be any expression. Its value is changed to a string and then used as a file name (*note Expressions::). When this type of redirection is used, the OUTPUT-FILE is erased before the first output is written to it. Subsequent writes to the same OUTPUT-FILE do not erase OUTPUT-FILE, but append to it. (This is different from how you use redirections in shell scripts.) If OUTPUT-FILE does not exist, it is created. For example, here is how an `awk' program can write a list of BBS names to one file named `name-list', and a list of phone numbers to another file named `phone-list': $ awk '{ print $2 > "phone-list" > print $1 > "name-list" }' BBS-list $ cat phone-list -| 555-5553 -| 555-3412 ... $ cat name-list -| aardvark -| alpo-net ... Each output file contains one name or number per line. `print ITEMS >> OUTPUT-FILE' This redirection prints the items into the pre-existing output file named OUTPUT-FILE. The difference between this and the single-`>' redirection is that the old contents (if any) of OUTPUT-FILE are not erased. Instead, the `awk' output is appended to the file. If OUTPUT-FILE does not exist, then it is created. `print ITEMS | COMMAND' It is possible to send output to another program through a pipe instead of into a file. This redirection opens a pipe to COMMAND, and writes the values of ITEMS through this pipe to another process created to execute COMMAND. The redirection argument COMMAND is actually an `awk' expression. Its value is converted to a string whose contents give the shell command to be run. For example, the following produces two files, one unsorted list of BBS names, and one list sorted in reverse alphabetical order: awk '{ print $1 > "names.unsorted" command = "sort -r > names.sorted" print $1 | command }' BBS-list The unsorted list is written with an ordinary redirection, while the sorted list is written by piping through the `sort' utility. The next example uses redirection to mail a message to the mailing list `bug-system'. This might be useful when trouble is encountered in an `awk' script run periodically for system maintenance: report = "mail bug-system" print "Awk script failed:", $0 | report m = ("at record number " FNR " of " FILENAME) print m | report close(report) The message is built using string concatenation and saved in the variable `m'. It's then sent down the pipeline to the `mail' program. (The parentheses group the items to concatenate--see *note Concatenation::.) The `close()' function is called here because it's a good idea to close the pipe as soon as all the intended output has been sent to it. *Note Close Files And Pipes::, for more information. This example also illustrates the use of a variable to represent a FILE or COMMAND--it is not necessary to always use a string constant. Using a variable is generally a good idea, because (if you mean to refer to that same file or command) `awk' requires that the string value be spelled identically every time. `print ITEMS |& COMMAND' This redirection prints the items to the input of COMMAND. The difference between this and the single-`|' redirection is that the output from COMMAND can be read with `getline'. Thus COMMAND is a "coprocess", which works together with, but subsidiary to, the `awk' program. This feature is a `gawk' extension, and is not available in POSIX `awk'. *Note Getline/Coprocess::, for a brief discussion. *Note Two-way I/O::, for a more complete discussion. Redirecting output using `>', `>>', `|', or `|&' asks the system to open a file, pipe, or coprocess only if the particular FILE or COMMAND you specify has not already been written to by your program or if it has been closed since it was last written to. It is a common error to use `>' redirection for the first `print' to a file, and then to use `>>' for subsequent output: # clear the file print "Don't panic" > "guide.txt" ... # append print "Avoid improbability generators" >> "guide.txt" This is indeed how redirections must be used from the shell. But in `awk', it isn't necessary. In this kind of case, a program should use `>' for all the `print' statements, since the output file is only opened once. (It happens that if you mix `>' and `>>' that output is produced in the expected order. However, mixing the operators for the same file is definitely poor style, and is confusing to readers of your program.) Many older `awk' implementations limit the number of pipelines that an `awk' program may have open to just one! In `gawk', there is no such limit. `gawk' allows a program to open as many pipelines as the underlying operating system permits. Advanced Notes: Piping into `sh' -------------------------------- A particularly powerful way to use redirection is to build command lines and pipe them into the shell, `sh'. For example, suppose you have a list of files brought over from a system where all the file names are stored in uppercase, and you wish to rename them to have names in all lowercase. The following program is both simple and efficient: { printf("mv %s %s\n", $0, tolower($0)) | "sh" } END { close("sh") } The `tolower()' function returns its argument string with all uppercase characters converted to lowercase (*note String Functions::). The program builds up a list of command lines, using the `mv' utility to rename the files. It then sends the list to the shell for execution. File: gawk.info, Node: Special Files, Next: Close Files And Pipes, Prev: Redirection, Up: Printing 5.7 Special File Names in `gawk' ================================ `gawk' provides a number of special file names that it interprets internally. These file names provide access to standard file descriptors and TCP/IP networking. * Menu: * Special FD:: Special files for I/O. * Special Network:: Special files for network communications. * Special Caveats:: Things to watch out for. File: gawk.info, Node: Special FD, Next: Special Network, Up: Special Files 5.7.1 Special Files for Standard Descriptors -------------------------------------------- Running programs conventionally have three input and output streams already available to them for reading and writing. These are known as the "standard input", "standard output", and "standard error output". These streams are, by default, connected to your keyboard and screen, but they are often redirected with the shell, via the `<', `<<', `>', `>>', `>&', and `|' operators. Standard error is typically used for writing error messages; the reason there are two separate streams, standard output and standard error, is so that they can be redirected separately. In other implementations of `awk', the only way to write an error message to standard error in an `awk' program is as follows: print "Serious error detected!" | "cat 1>&2" This works by opening a pipeline to a shell command that can access the standard error stream that it inherits from the `awk' process. This is far from elegant, and it is also inefficient, because it requires a separate process. So people writing `awk' programs often don't do this. Instead, they send the error messages to the screen, like this: print "Serious error detected!" > "/dev/tty" (`/dev/tty' is a special file supplied by the operating system that is connected to your keyboard and screen. It represents the "terminal,"(1) which on modern systems is a keyboard and screen, not a serial console.) This usually has the same effect but not always: although the standard error stream is usually the screen, it can be redirected; when that happens, writing to the screen is not correct. In fact, if `awk' is run from a background job, it may not have a terminal at all. Then opening `/dev/tty' fails. `gawk' provides special file names for accessing the three standard streams. (c.e.). It also provides syntax for accessing any other inherited open files. If the file name matches one of these special names when `gawk' redirects input or output, then it directly uses the stream that the file name stands for. These special file names work for all operating systems that `gawk' has been ported to, not just those that are POSIX-compliant: `/dev/stdin' The standard input (file descriptor 0). `/dev/stdout' The standard output (file descriptor 1). `/dev/stderr' The standard error output (file descriptor 2). `/dev/fd/N' The file associated with file descriptor N. Such a file must be opened by the program initiating the `awk' execution (typically the shell). Unless special pains are taken in the shell from which `gawk' is invoked, only descriptors 0, 1, and 2 are available. The file names `/dev/stdin', `/dev/stdout', and `/dev/stderr' are aliases for `/dev/fd/0', `/dev/fd/1', and `/dev/fd/2', respectively. However, they are more self-explanatory. The proper way to write an error message in a `gawk' program is to use `/dev/stderr', like this: print "Serious error detected!" > "/dev/stderr" Note the use of quotes around the file name. Like any other redirection, the value must be a string. It is a common error to omit the quotes, which leads to confusing results. Finally, using the `close()' function on a file name of the form `"/dev/fd/N"', for file descriptor numbers above two, will actually close the given file descriptor. The `/dev/stdin', `/dev/stdout', and `/dev/stderr' special files are also recognized internally by several other versions of `awk'. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The "tty" in `/dev/tty' stands for "Teletype," a serial terminal. File: gawk.info, Node: Special Network, Next: Special Caveats, Prev: Special FD, Up: Special Files 5.7.2 Special Files for Network Communications ---------------------------------------------- `gawk' programs can open a two-way TCP/IP connection, acting as either a client or a server. This is done using a special file name of the form: `/NET-TYPE/PROTOCOL/LOCAL-PORT/REMOTE-HOST/REMOTE-PORT' The NET-TYPE is one of `inet', `inet4' or `inet6'. The PROTOCOL is one of `tcp' or `udp', and the other fields represent the other essential pieces of information for making a networking connection. These file names are used with the `|&' operator for communicating with a coprocess (*note Two-way I/O::). This is an advanced feature, mentioned here only for completeness. Full discussion is delayed until *note TCP/IP Networking::. File: gawk.info, Node: Special Caveats, Prev: Special Network, Up: Special Files 5.7.3 Special File Name Caveats ------------------------------- Here is a list of things to bear in mind when using the special file names that `gawk' provides: * Recognition of these special file names is disabled if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::). * `gawk' _always_ interprets these special file names. For example, using `/dev/fd/4' for output actually writes on file descriptor 4, and not on a new file descriptor that is `dup()''ed from file descriptor 4. Most of the time this does not matter; however, it is important to _not_ close any of the files related to file descriptors 0, 1, and 2. Doing so results in unpredictable behavior. File: gawk.info, Node: Close Files And Pipes, Prev: Special Files, Up: Printing 5.8 Closing Input and Output Redirections ========================================= If the same file name or the same shell command is used with `getline' more than once during the execution of an `awk' program (*note Getline::), the file is opened (or the command is executed) the first time only. At that time, the first record of input is read from that file or command. The next time the same file or command is used with `getline', another record is read from it, and so on. Similarly, when a file or pipe is opened for output, `awk' remembers the file name or command associated with it, and subsequent writes to the same file or command are appended to the previous writes. The file or pipe stays open until `awk' exits. This implies that special steps are necessary in order to read the same file again from the beginning, or to rerun a shell command (rather than reading more output from the same command). The `close()' function makes these things possible: close(FILENAME) or: close(COMMAND) The argument FILENAME or COMMAND can be any expression. Its value must _exactly_ match the string that was used to open the file or start the command (spaces and other "irrelevant" characters included). For example, if you open a pipe with this: "sort -r names" | getline foo then you must close it with this: close("sort -r names") Once this function call is executed, the next `getline' from that file or command, or the next `print' or `printf' to that file or command, reopens the file or reruns the command. Because the expression that you use to close a file or pipeline must exactly match the expression used to open the file or run the command, it is good practice to use a variable to store the file name or command. The previous example becomes the following: sortcom = "sort -r names" sortcom | getline foo ... close(sortcom) This helps avoid hard-to-find typographical errors in your `awk' programs. Here are some of the reasons for closing an output file: * To write a file and read it back later on in the same `awk' program. Close the file after writing it, then begin reading it with `getline'. * To write numerous files, successively, in the same `awk' program. If the files aren't closed, eventually `awk' may exceed a system limit on the number of open files in one process. It is best to close each one when the program has finished writing it. * To make a command finish. When output is redirected through a pipe, the command reading the pipe normally continues to try to read input as long as the pipe is open. Often this means the command cannot really do its work until the pipe is closed. For example, if output is redirected to the `mail' program, the message is not actually sent until the pipe is closed. * To run the same program a second time, with the same arguments. This is not the same thing as giving more input to the first run! For example, suppose a program pipes output to the `mail' program. If it outputs several lines redirected to this pipe without closing it, they make a single message of several lines. By contrast, if the program closes the pipe after each line of output, then each line makes a separate message. If you use more files than the system allows you to have open, `gawk' attempts to multiplex the available open files among your data files. `gawk''s ability to do this depends upon the facilities of your operating system, so it may not always work. It is therefore both good practice and good portability advice to always use `close()' on your files when you are done with them. In fact, if you are using a lot of pipes, it is essential that you close commands when done. For example, consider something like this: { ... command = ("grep " $1 " /some/file | my_prog -q " $3) while ((command | getline) > 0) { PROCESS OUTPUT OF command } # need close(command) here } This example creates a new pipeline based on data in _each_ record. Without the call to `close()' indicated in the comment, `awk' creates child processes to run the commands, until it eventually runs out of file descriptors for more pipelines. Even though each command has finished (as indicated by the end-of-file return status from `getline'), the child process is not terminated;(1) more importantly, the file descriptor for the pipe is not closed and released until `close()' is called or `awk' exits. `close()' will silently do nothing if given an argument that does not represent a file, pipe or coprocess that was opened with a redirection. Note also that `close(FILENAME)' has no "magic" effects on the implicit loop that reads through the files named on the command line. It is, more likely, a close of a file that was never opened, so `awk' silently does nothing. When using the `|&' operator to communicate with a coprocess, it is occasionally useful to be able to close one end of the two-way pipe without closing the other. This is done by supplying a second argument to `close()'. As in any other call to `close()', the first argument is the name of the command or special file used to start the coprocess. The second argument should be a string, with either of the values `"to"' or `"from"'. Case does not matter. As this is an advanced feature, a more complete discussion is delayed until *note Two-way I/O::, which discusses it in more detail and gives an example. Advanced Notes: Using `close()''s Return Value ---------------------------------------------- In many versions of Unix `awk', the `close()' function is actually a statement. It is a syntax error to try and use the return value from `close()': (d.c.) command = "..." command | getline info retval = close(command) # syntax error in many Unix awks `gawk' treats `close()' as a function. The return value is -1 if the argument names something that was never opened with a redirection, or if there is a system problem closing the file or process. In these cases, `gawk' sets the built-in variable `ERRNO' to a string describing the problem. In `gawk', when closing a pipe or coprocess (input or output), the return value is the exit status of the command.(2) Otherwise, it is the return value from the system's `close()' or `fclose()' C functions when closing input or output files, respectively. This value is zero if the close succeeds, or -1 if it fails. The POSIX standard is very vague; it says that `close()' returns zero on success and nonzero otherwise. In general, different implementations vary in what they report when closing pipes; thus the return value cannot be used portably. (d.c.) In POSIX mode (*note Options::), `gawk' just returns zero when closing a pipe. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The technical terminology is rather morbid. The finished child is called a "zombie," and cleaning up after it is referred to as "reaping." (2) This is a full 16-bit value as returned by the `wait()' system call. See the system manual pages for information on how to decode this value. File: gawk.info, Node: Expressions, Next: Patterns and Actions, Prev: Printing, Up: Top 6 Expressions ************* Expressions are the basic building blocks of `awk' patterns and actions. An expression evaluates to a value that you can print, test, or pass to a function. Additionally, an expression can assign a new value to a variable or a field by using an assignment operator. An expression can serve as a pattern or action statement on its own. Most other kinds of statements contain one or more expressions that specify the data on which to operate. As in other languages, expressions in `awk' include variables, array references, constants, and function calls, as well as combinations of these with various operators. * Menu: * Values:: Constants, Variables, and Regular Expressions. * All Operators:: `gawk''s operators. * Truth Values and Conditions:: Testing for true and false. * Function Calls:: A function call is an expression. * Precedence:: How various operators nest. File: gawk.info, Node: Values, Next: All Operators, Up: Expressions 6.1 Constants, Variables and Conversions ======================================== Expressions are built up from values and the operations performed upon them. This minor node describes the elementary objects which provide the values used in expressions. * Menu: * Constants:: String, numeric and regexp constants. * Using Constant Regexps:: When and how to use a regexp constant. * Variables:: Variables give names to values for later use. * Conversion:: The conversion of strings to numbers and vice versa. File: gawk.info, Node: Constants, Next: Using Constant Regexps, Up: Values 6.1.1 Constant Expressions -------------------------- The simplest type of expression is the "constant", which always has the same value. There are three types of constants: numeric, string, and regular expression. Each is used in the appropriate context when you need a data value that isn't going to change. Numeric constants can have different forms, but are stored identically internally. * Menu: * Scalar Constants:: Numeric and string constants. * Nondecimal-numbers:: What are octal and hex numbers. * Regexp Constants:: Regular Expression constants. File: gawk.info, Node: Scalar Constants, Next: Nondecimal-numbers, Up: Constants 6.1.1.1 Numeric and String Constants .................................... A "numeric constant" stands for a number. This number can be an integer, a decimal fraction, or a number in scientific (exponential) notation.(1) Here are some examples of numeric constants that all have the same value: 105 1.05e+2 1050e-1 A string constant consists of a sequence of characters enclosed in double-quotation marks. For example: "parrot" represents the string whose contents are `parrot'. Strings in `gawk' can be of any length, and they can contain any of the possible eight-bit ASCII characters including ASCII NUL (character code zero). Other `awk' implementations may have difficulty with some character codes. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The internal representation of all numbers, including integers, uses double precision floating-point numbers. On most modern systems, these are in IEEE 754 standard format. File: gawk.info, Node: Nondecimal-numbers, Next: Regexp Constants, Prev: Scalar Constants, Up: Constants 6.1.1.2 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers ..................................... In `awk', all numbers are in decimal; i.e., base 10. Many other programming languages allow you to specify numbers in other bases, often octal (base 8) and hexadecimal (base 16). In octal, the numbers go 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, etc. Just as `11', in decimal, is 1 times 10 plus 1, so `11', in octal, is 1 times 8, plus 1. This equals 9 in decimal. In hexadecimal, there are 16 digits. Since the everyday decimal number system only has ten digits (`0'-`9'), the letters `a' through `f' are used to represent the rest. (Case in the letters is usually irrelevant; hexadecimal `a' and `A' have the same value.) Thus, `11', in hexadecimal, is 1 times 16 plus 1, which equals 17 in decimal. Just by looking at plain `11', you can't tell what base it's in. So, in C, C++, and other languages derived from C, there is a special notation to signify the base. Octal numbers start with a leading `0', and hexadecimal numbers start with a leading `0x' or `0X': `11' Decimal value 11. `011' Octal 11, decimal value 9. `0x11' Hexadecimal 11, decimal value 17. This example shows the difference: $ gawk 'BEGIN { printf "%d, %d, %d\n", 011, 11, 0x11 }' -| 9, 11, 17 Being able to use octal and hexadecimal constants in your programs is most useful when working with data that cannot be represented conveniently as characters or as regular numbers, such as binary data of various sorts. `gawk' allows the use of octal and hexadecimal constants in your program text. However, such numbers in the input data are not treated differently; doing so by default would break old programs. (If you really need to do this, use the `--non-decimal-data' command-line option; *note Nondecimal Data::.) If you have octal or hexadecimal data, you can use the `strtonum()' function (*note String Functions::) to convert the data into a number. Most of the time, you will want to use octal or hexadecimal constants when working with the built-in bit manipulation functions; see *note Bitwise Functions::, for more information. Unlike some early C implementations, `8' and `9' are not valid in octal constants; e.g., `gawk' treats `018' as decimal 18: $ gawk 'BEGIN { print "021 is", 021 ; print 018 }' -| 021 is 17 -| 18 Octal and hexadecimal source code constants are a `gawk' extension. If `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), they are not available. Advanced Notes: A Constant's Base Does Not Affect Its Value ----------------------------------------------------------- Once a numeric constant has been converted internally into a number, `gawk' no longer remembers what the original form of the constant was; the internal value is always used. This has particular consequences for conversion of numbers to strings: $ gawk 'BEGIN { printf "0x11 is <%s>\n", 0x11 }' -| 0x11 is <17> File: gawk.info, Node: Regexp Constants, Prev: Nondecimal-numbers, Up: Constants 6.1.1.3 Regular Expression Constants .................................... A regexp constant is a regular expression description enclosed in slashes, such as `/^beginning and end$/'. Most regexps used in `awk' programs are constant, but the `~' and `!~' matching operators can also match computed or dynamic regexps (which are just ordinary strings or variables that contain a regexp). File: gawk.info, Node: Using Constant Regexps, Next: Variables, Prev: Constants, Up: Values 6.1.2 Using Regular Expression Constants ---------------------------------------- When used on the righthand side of the `~' or `!~' operators, a regexp constant merely stands for the regexp that is to be matched. However, regexp constants (such as `/foo/') may be used like simple expressions. When a regexp constant appears by itself, it has the same meaning as if it appeared in a pattern, i.e., `($0 ~ /foo/)' (d.c.) *Note Expression Patterns::. This means that the following two code segments: if ($0 ~ /barfly/ || $0 ~ /camelot/) print "found" and: if (/barfly/ || /camelot/) print "found" are exactly equivalent. One rather bizarre consequence of this rule is that the following Boolean expression is valid, but does not do what the user probably intended: # Note that /foo/ is on the left of the ~ if (/foo/ ~ $1) print "found foo" This code is "obviously" testing `$1' for a match against the regexp `/foo/'. But in fact, the expression `/foo/ ~ $1' really means `($0 ~ /foo/) ~ $1'. In other words, first match the input record against the regexp `/foo/'. The result is either zero or one, depending upon the success or failure of the match. That result is then matched against the first field in the record. Because it is unlikely that you would ever really want to make this kind of test, `gawk' issues a warning when it sees this construct in a program. Another consequence of this rule is that the assignment statement: matches = /foo/ assigns either zero or one to the variable `matches', depending upon the contents of the current input record. Constant regular expressions are also used as the first argument for the `gensub()', `sub()', and `gsub()' functions, as the second argument of the `match()' function, and as the third argument of the `patsplit()' function (*note String Functions::). Modern implementations of `awk', including `gawk', allow the third argument of `split()' to be a regexp constant, but some older implementations do not. (d.c.) This can lead to confusion when attempting to use regexp constants as arguments to user-defined functions (*note User-defined::). For example: function mysub(pat, repl, str, global) { if (global) gsub(pat, repl, str) else sub(pat, repl, str) return str } { ... text = "hi! hi yourself!" mysub(/hi/, "howdy", text, 1) ... } In this example, the programmer wants to pass a regexp constant to the user-defined function `mysub', which in turn passes it on to either `sub()' or `gsub()'. However, what really happens is that the `pat' parameter is either one or zero, depending upon whether or not `$0' matches `/hi/'. `gawk' issues a warning when it sees a regexp constant used as a parameter to a user-defined function, since passing a truth value in this way is probably not what was intended. File: gawk.info, Node: Variables, Next: Conversion, Prev: Using Constant Regexps, Up: Values 6.1.3 Variables --------------- Variables are ways of storing values at one point in your program for use later in another part of your program. They can be manipulated entirely within the program text, and they can also be assigned values on the `awk' command line. * Menu: * Using Variables:: Using variables in your programs. * Assignment Options:: Setting variables on the command-line and a summary of command-line syntax. This is an advanced method of input. File: gawk.info, Node: Using Variables, Next: Assignment Options, Up: Variables 6.1.3.1 Using Variables in a Program .................................... Variables let you give names to values and refer to them later. Variables have already been used in many of the examples. The name of a variable must be a sequence of letters, digits, or underscores, and it may not begin with a digit. Case is significant in variable names; `a' and `A' are distinct variables. A variable name is a valid expression by itself; it represents the variable's current value. Variables are given new values with "assignment operators", "increment operators", and "decrement operators". *Note Assignment Ops::. In addition, the `sub()' and `gsub()' functions can change a variable's value, and the `match()', `patsplit()' and `split()' functions can change the contents of their array parameters. *Note String Functions::. A few variables have special built-in meanings, such as `FS' (the field separator), and `NF' (the number of fields in the current input record). *Note Built-in Variables::, for a list of the built-in variables. These built-in variables can be used and assigned just like all other variables, but their values are also used or changed automatically by `awk'. All built-in variables' names are entirely uppercase. Variables in `awk' can be assigned either numeric or string values. The kind of value a variable holds can change over the life of a program. By default, variables are initialized to the empty string, which is zero if converted to a number. There is no need to explicitly "initialize" a variable in `awk', which is what you would do in C and in most other traditional languages. File: gawk.info, Node: Assignment Options, Prev: Using Variables, Up: Variables 6.1.3.2 Assigning Variables on the Command Line ............................................... Any `awk' variable can be set by including a "variable assignment" among the arguments on the command line when `awk' is invoked (*note Other Arguments::). Such an assignment has the following form: VARIABLE=TEXT With it, a variable is set either at the beginning of the `awk' run or in between input files. When the assignment is preceded with the `-v' option, as in the following: -v VARIABLE=TEXT the variable is set at the very beginning, even before the `BEGIN' rules execute. The `-v' option and its assignment must precede all the file name arguments, as well as the program text. (*Note Options::, for more information about the `-v' option.) Otherwise, the variable assignment is performed at a time determined by its position among the input file arguments--after the processing of the preceding input file argument. For example: awk '{ print $n }' n=4 inventory-shipped n=2 BBS-list prints the value of field number `n' for all input records. Before the first file is read, the command line sets the variable `n' equal to four. This causes the fourth field to be printed in lines from `inventory-shipped'. After the first file has finished, but before the second file is started, `n' is set to two, so that the second field is printed in lines from `BBS-list': $ awk '{ print $n }' n=4 inventory-shipped n=2 BBS-list -| 15 -| 24 ... -| 555-5553 -| 555-3412 ... Command-line arguments are made available for explicit examination by the `awk' program in the `ARGV' array (*note ARGC and ARGV::). `awk' processes the values of command-line assignments for escape sequences (*note Escape Sequences::). (d.c.) File: gawk.info, Node: Conversion, Prev: Variables, Up: Values 6.1.4 Conversion of Strings and Numbers --------------------------------------- Strings are converted to numbers and numbers are converted to strings, if the context of the `awk' program demands it. For example, if the value of either `foo' or `bar' in the expression `foo + bar' happens to be a string, it is converted to a number before the addition is performed. If numeric values appear in string concatenation, they are converted to strings. Consider the following: two = 2; three = 3 print (two three) + 4 This prints the (numeric) value 27. The numeric values of the variables `two' and `three' are converted to strings and concatenated together. The resulting string is converted back to the number 23, to which 4 is then added. If, for some reason, you need to force a number to be converted to a string, concatenate that number with the empty string, `""'. To force a string to be converted to a number, add zero to that string. A string is converted to a number by interpreting any numeric prefix of the string as numerals: `"2.5"' converts to 2.5, `"1e3"' converts to 1000, and `"25fix"' has a numeric value of 25. Strings that can't be interpreted as valid numbers convert to zero. The exact manner in which numbers are converted into strings is controlled by the `awk' built-in variable `CONVFMT' (*note Built-in Variables::). Numbers are converted using the `sprintf()' function with `CONVFMT' as the format specifier (*note String Functions::). `CONVFMT''s default value is `"%.6g"', which prints a value with at most six significant digits. For some applications, you might want to change it to specify more precision. On most modern machines, 17 digits is usually enough to capture a floating-point number's value exactly.(1) Strange results can occur if you set `CONVFMT' to a string that doesn't tell `sprintf()' how to format floating-point numbers in a useful way. For example, if you forget the `%' in the format, `awk' converts all numbers to the same constant string. As a special case, if a number is an integer, then the result of converting it to a string is _always_ an integer, no matter what the value of `CONVFMT' may be. Given the following code fragment: CONVFMT = "%2.2f" a = 12 b = a "" `b' has the value `"12"', not `"12.00"'. (d.c.) Prior to the POSIX standard, `awk' used the value of `OFMT' for converting numbers to strings. `OFMT' specifies the output format to use when printing numbers with `print'. `CONVFMT' was introduced in order to separate the semantics of conversion from the semantics of printing. Both `CONVFMT' and `OFMT' have the same default value: `"%.6g"'. In the vast majority of cases, old `awk' programs do not change their behavior. However, these semantics for `OFMT' are something to keep in mind if you must port your new-style program to older implementations of `awk'. We recommend that instead of changing your programs, just port `gawk' itself. *Note Print::, for more information on the `print' statement. And, once again, where you are can matter when it comes to converting between numbers and strings. In *note Locales::, we mentioned that the local character set and language (the locale) can affect how `gawk' matches characters. The locale also affects numeric formats. In particular, for `awk' programs, it affects the decimal point character. The `"C"' locale, and most English-language locales, use the period character (`.') as the decimal point. However, many (if not most) European and non-English locales use the comma (`,') as the decimal point character. The POSIX standard says that `awk' always uses the period as the decimal point when reading the `awk' program source code, and for command-line variable assignments (*note Other Arguments::). However, when interpreting input data, for `print' and `printf' output, and for number to string conversion, the local decimal point character is used. Here are some examples indicating the difference in behavior, on a GNU/Linux system: $ gawk 'BEGIN { printf "%g\n", 3.1415927 }' -| 3.14159 $ LC_ALL=en_DK gawk 'BEGIN { printf "%g\n", 3.1415927 }' -| 3,14159 $ echo 4,321 | gawk '{ print $1 + 1 }' -| 5 $ echo 4,321 | LC_ALL=en_DK gawk '{ print $1 + 1 }' -| 5,321 The `en_DK' locale is for English in Denmark, where the comma acts as the decimal point separator. In the normal `"C"' locale, `gawk' treats `4,321' as `4', while in the Danish locale, it's treated as the full number, 4.321. Some earlier versions of `gawk' fully complied with this aspect of the standard. However, many users in non-English locales complained about this behavior, since their data used a period as the decimal point, so the default behavior was restored to use a period as the decimal point character. You can use the `--use-lc-numeric' option (*note Options::) to force `gawk' to use the locale's decimal point character. (`gawk' also uses the locale's decimal point character when in POSIX mode, either via `--posix', or the `POSIXLY_CORRECT' environment variable.) *note table-locale-affects:: describes the cases in which the locale's decimal point character is used and when a period is used. Some of these features have not been described yet. Feature Default `--posix' or `--use-lc-numeric' ------------------------------------------------------------ `%'g' Use locale Use locale `%g' Use period Use locale Input Use period Use locale `strtonum()'Use period Use locale Table 6.1: Locale Decimal Point versus A Period Finally, modern day formal standards and IEEE standard floating point representation can have an unusual but important effect on the way `gawk' converts some special string values to numbers. The details are presented in *note POSIX Floating Point Problems::. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Pathological cases can require up to 752 digits (!), but we doubt that you need to worry about this. File: gawk.info, Node: All Operators, Next: Truth Values and Conditions, Prev: Values, Up: Expressions 6.2 Operators: Doing Something With Values ========================================== This minor node introduces the "operators" which make use of the values provided by constants and variables. * Menu: * Arithmetic Ops:: Arithmetic operations (`+', `-', etc.) * Concatenation:: Concatenating strings. * Assignment Ops:: Changing the value of a variable or a field. * Increment Ops:: Incrementing the numeric value of a variable. File: gawk.info, Node: Arithmetic Ops, Next: Concatenation, Up: All Operators 6.2.1 Arithmetic Operators -------------------------- The `awk' language uses the common arithmetic operators when evaluating expressions. All of these arithmetic operators follow normal precedence rules and work as you would expect them to. The following example uses a file named `grades', which contains a list of student names as well as three test scores per student (it's a small class): Pat 100 97 58 Sandy 84 72 93 Chris 72 92 89 This program takes the file `grades' and prints the average of the scores: $ awk '{ sum = $2 + $3 + $4 ; avg = sum / 3 > print $1, avg }' grades -| Pat 85 -| Sandy 83 -| Chris 84.3333 The following list provides the arithmetic operators in `awk', in order from the highest precedence to the lowest: `- X' Negation. `+ X' Unary plus; the expression is converted to a number. `X ^ Y' `X ** Y' Exponentiation; X raised to the Y power. `2 ^ 3' has the value eight; the character sequence `**' is equivalent to `^'. (c.e.) `X * Y' Multiplication. `X / Y' Division; because all numbers in `awk' are floating-point numbers, the result is _not_ rounded to an integer--`3 / 4' has the value 0.75. (It is a common mistake, especially for C programmers, to forget that _all_ numbers in `awk' are floating-point, and that division of integer-looking constants produces a real number, not an integer.) `X % Y' Remainder; further discussion is provided in the text, just after this list. `X + Y' Addition. `X - Y' Subtraction. Unary plus and minus have the same precedence, the multiplication operators all have the same precedence, and addition and subtraction have the same precedence. When computing the remainder of `X % Y', the quotient is rounded toward zero to an integer and multiplied by Y. This result is subtracted from X; this operation is sometimes known as "trunc-mod." The following relation always holds: b * int(a / b) + (a % b) == a One possibly undesirable effect of this definition of remainder is that `X % Y' is negative if X is negative. Thus: -17 % 8 = -1 In other `awk' implementations, the signedness of the remainder may be machine-dependent. NOTE: The POSIX standard only specifies the use of `^' for exponentiation. For maximum portability, do not use the `**' operator. File: gawk.info, Node: Concatenation, Next: Assignment Ops, Prev: Arithmetic Ops, Up: All Operators 6.2.2 String Concatenation -------------------------- It seemed like a good idea at the time. Brian Kernighan There is only one string operation: concatenation. It does not have a specific operator to represent it. Instead, concatenation is performed by writing expressions next to one another, with no operator. For example: $ awk '{ print "Field number one: " $1 }' BBS-list -| Field number one: aardvark -| Field number one: alpo-net ... Without the space in the string constant after the `:', the line runs together. For example: $ awk '{ print "Field number one:" $1 }' BBS-list -| Field number one:aardvark -| Field number one:alpo-net ... Because string concatenation does not have an explicit operator, it is often necessary to insure that it happens at the right time by using parentheses to enclose the items to concatenate. For example, you might expect that the following code fragment concatenates `file' and `name': file = "file" name = "name" print "something meaningful" > file name This produces a syntax error with some versions of Unix `awk'.(1) It is necessary to use the following: print "something meaningful" > (file name) Parentheses should be used around concatenation in all but the most common contexts, such as on the righthand side of `='. Be careful about the kinds of expressions used in string concatenation. In particular, the order of evaluation of expressions used for concatenation is undefined in the `awk' language. Consider this example: BEGIN { a = "don't" print (a " " (a = "panic")) } It is not defined whether the assignment to `a' happens before or after the value of `a' is retrieved for producing the concatenated value. The result could be either `don't panic', or `panic panic'. The precedence of concatenation, when mixed with other operators, is often counter-intuitive. Consider this example: $ awk 'BEGIN { print -12 " " -24 }' -| -12-24 This "obviously" is concatenating -12, a space, and -24. But where did the space disappear to? The answer lies in the combination of operator precedences and `awk''s automatic conversion rules. To get the desired result, write the program this way: $ awk 'BEGIN { print -12 " " (-24) }' -| -12 -24 This forces `awk' to treat the `-' on the `-24' as unary. Otherwise, it's parsed as follows: -12 (`" "' - 24) => -12 (0 - 24) => -12 (-24) => -12-24 As mentioned earlier, when doing concatenation, _parenthesize_. Otherwise, you're never quite sure what you'll get. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) It happens that Brian Kernighan's `awk', `gawk' and `mawk' all "get it right," but you should not rely on this. File: gawk.info, Node: Assignment Ops, Next: Increment Ops, Prev: Concatenation, Up: All Operators 6.2.3 Assignment Expressions ---------------------------- An "assignment" is an expression that stores a (usually different) value into a variable. For example, let's assign the value one to the variable `z': z = 1 After this expression is executed, the variable `z' has the value one. Whatever old value `z' had before the assignment is forgotten. Assignments can also store string values. For example, the following stores the value `"this food is good"' in the variable `message': thing = "food" predicate = "good" message = "this " thing " is " predicate This also illustrates string concatenation. The `=' sign is called an "assignment operator". It is the simplest assignment operator because the value of the righthand operand is stored unchanged. Most operators (addition, concatenation, and so on) have no effect except to compute a value. If the value isn't used, there's no reason to use the operator. An assignment operator is different; it does produce a value, but even if you ignore it, the assignment still makes itself felt through the alteration of the variable. We call this a "side effect". The lefthand operand of an assignment need not be a variable (*note Variables::); it can also be a field (*note Changing Fields::) or an array element (*note Arrays::). These are all called "lvalues", which means they can appear on the lefthand side of an assignment operator. The righthand operand may be any expression; it produces the new value that the assignment stores in the specified variable, field, or array element. (Such values are called "rvalues".) It is important to note that variables do _not_ have permanent types. A variable's type is simply the type of whatever value it happens to hold at the moment. In the following program fragment, the variable `foo' has a numeric value at first, and a string value later on: foo = 1 print foo foo = "bar" print foo When the second assignment gives `foo' a string value, the fact that it previously had a numeric value is forgotten. String values that do not begin with a digit have a numeric value of zero. After executing the following code, the value of `foo' is five: foo = "a string" foo = foo + 5 NOTE: Using a variable as a number and then later as a string can be confusing and is poor programming style. The previous two examples illustrate how `awk' works, _not_ how you should write your programs! An assignment is an expression, so it has a value--the same value that is assigned. Thus, `z = 1' is an expression with the value one. One consequence of this is that you can write multiple assignments together, such as: x = y = z = 5 This example stores the value five in all three variables (`x', `y', and `z'). It does so because the value of `z = 5', which is five, is stored into `y' and then the value of `y = z = 5', which is five, is stored into `x'. Assignments may be used anywhere an expression is called for. For example, it is valid to write `x != (y = 1)' to set `y' to one, and then test whether `x' equals one. But this style tends to make programs hard to read; such nesting of assignments should be avoided, except perhaps in a one-shot program. Aside from `=', there are several other assignment operators that do arithmetic with the old value of the variable. For example, the operator `+=' computes a new value by adding the righthand value to the old value of the variable. Thus, the following assignment adds five to the value of `foo': foo += 5 This is equivalent to the following: foo = foo + 5 Use whichever makes the meaning of your program clearer. There are situations where using `+=' (or any assignment operator) is _not_ the same as simply repeating the lefthand operand in the righthand expression. For example: # Thanks to Pat Rankin for this example BEGIN { foo[rand()] += 5 for (x in foo) print x, foo[x] bar[rand()] = bar[rand()] + 5 for (x in bar) print x, bar[x] } The indices of `bar' are practically guaranteed to be different, because `rand()' returns different values each time it is called. (Arrays and the `rand()' function haven't been covered yet. *Note Arrays::, and see *note Numeric Functions::, for more information). This example illustrates an important fact about assignment operators: the lefthand expression is only evaluated _once_. It is up to the implementation as to which expression is evaluated first, the lefthand or the righthand. Consider this example: i = 1 a[i += 2] = i + 1 The value of `a[3]' could be either two or four. *note table-assign-ops:: lists the arithmetic assignment operators. In each case, the righthand operand is an expression whose value is converted to a number. Operator Effect -------------------------------------------------------------------------- LVALUE `+=' INCREMENT Adds INCREMENT to the value of LVALUE. LVALUE `-=' DECREMENT Subtracts DECREMENT from the value of LVALUE. LVALUE `*=' Multiplies the value of LVALUE by COEFFICIENT. COEFFICIENT LVALUE `/=' DIVISOR Divides the value of LVALUE by DIVISOR. LVALUE `%=' MODULUS Sets LVALUE to its remainder by MODULUS. LVALUE `^=' POWER LVALUE `**=' POWER Raises LVALUE to the power POWER. (c.e.) Table 6.2: Arithmetic Assignment Operators NOTE: Only the `^=' operator is specified by POSIX. For maximum portability, do not use the `**=' operator. Advanced Notes: Syntactic Ambiguities Between `/=' and Regular Expressions -------------------------------------------------------------------------- There is a syntactic ambiguity between the `/=' assignment operator and regexp constants whose first character is an `='. (d.c.) This is most notable in commercial `awk' versions. For example: $ awk /==/ /dev/null error--> awk: syntax error at source line 1 error--> context is error--> >>> /= <<< error--> awk: bailing out at source line 1 A workaround is: awk '/[=]=/' /dev/null `gawk' does not have this problem, nor do the other freely available versions described in *note Other Versions::. File: gawk.info, Node: Increment Ops, Prev: Assignment Ops, Up: All Operators 6.2.4 Increment and Decrement Operators --------------------------------------- "Increment" and "decrement operators" increase or decrease the value of a variable by one. An assignment operator can do the same thing, so the increment operators add no power to the `awk' language; however, they are convenient abbreviations for very common operations. The operator used for adding one is written `++'. It can be used to increment a variable either before or after taking its value. To pre-increment a variable `v', write `++v'. This adds one to the value of `v'--that new value is also the value of the expression. (The assignment expression `v += 1' is completely equivalent.) Writing the `++' after the variable specifies post-increment. This increments the variable value just the same; the difference is that the value of the increment expression itself is the variable's _old_ value. Thus, if `foo' has the value four, then the expression `foo++' has the value four, but it changes the value of `foo' to five. In other words, the operator returns the old value of the variable, but with the side effect of incrementing it. The post-increment `foo++' is nearly the same as writing `(foo += 1) - 1'. It is not perfectly equivalent because all numbers in `awk' are floating-point--in floating-point, `foo + 1 - 1' does not necessarily equal `foo'. But the difference is minute as long as you stick to numbers that are fairly small (less than 10e12). Fields and array elements are incremented just like variables. (Use `$(i++)' when you want to do a field reference and a variable increment at the same time. The parentheses are necessary because of the precedence of the field reference operator `$'.) The decrement operator `--' works just like `++', except that it subtracts one instead of adding it. As with `++', it can be used before the lvalue to pre-decrement or after it to post-decrement. Following is a summary of increment and decrement expressions: `++LVALUE' Increment LVALUE, returning the new value as the value of the expression. `LVALUE++' Increment LVALUE, returning the _old_ value of LVALUE as the value of the expression. `--LVALUE' Decrement LVALUE, returning the new value as the value of the expression. (This expression is like `++LVALUE', but instead of adding, it subtracts.) `LVALUE--' Decrement LVALUE, returning the _old_ value of LVALUE as the value of the expression. (This expression is like `LVALUE++', but instead of adding, it subtracts.) Advanced Notes: Operator Evaluation Order ----------------------------------------- Doctor, doctor! It hurts when I do this! So don't do that! Groucho Marx What happens for something like the following? b = 6 print b += b++ Or something even stranger? b = 6 b += ++b + b++ print b In other words, when do the various side effects prescribed by the postfix operators (`b++') take effect? When side effects happen is "implementation defined". In other words, it is up to the particular version of `awk'. The result for the first example may be 12 or 13, and for the second, it may be 22 or 23. In short, doing things like this is not recommended and definitely not anything that you can rely upon for portability. You should avoid such things in your own programs. File: gawk.info, Node: Truth Values and Conditions, Next: Function Calls, Prev: All Operators, Up: Expressions 6.3 Truth Values and Conditions =============================== In certain contexts, expression values also serve as "truth values;" i.e., they determine what should happen next as the program runs. This minor node describes how `awk' defines "true" and "false" and how values are compared. * Menu: * Truth Values:: What is ``true'' and what is ``false''. * Typing and Comparison:: How variables acquire types and how this affects comparison of numbers and strings with `<', etc. * Boolean Ops:: Combining comparison expressions using boolean operators `||' (``or''), `&&' (``and'') and `!' (``not''). * Conditional Exp:: Conditional expressions select between two subexpressions under control of a third subexpression. File: gawk.info, Node: Truth Values, Next: Typing and Comparison, Up: Truth Values and Conditions 6.3.1 True and False in `awk' ----------------------------- Many programming languages have a special representation for the concepts of "true" and "false." Such languages usually use the special constants `true' and `false', or perhaps their uppercase equivalents. However, `awk' is different. It borrows a very simple concept of true and false from C. In `awk', any nonzero numeric value _or_ any nonempty string value is true. Any other value (zero or the null string, `""') is false. The following program prints `A strange truth value' three times: BEGIN { if (3.1415927) print "A strange truth value" if ("Four Score And Seven Years Ago") print "A strange truth value" if (j = 57) print "A strange truth value" } There is a surprising consequence of the "nonzero or non-null" rule: the string constant `"0"' is actually true, because it is non-null. (d.c.) File: gawk.info, Node: Typing and Comparison, Next: Boolean Ops, Prev: Truth Values, Up: Truth Values and Conditions 6.3.2 Variable Typing and Comparison Expressions ------------------------------------------------ The Guide is definitive. Reality is frequently inaccurate. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Unlike other programming languages, `awk' variables do not have a fixed type. Instead, they can be either a number or a string, depending upon the value that is assigned to them. We look now at how variables are typed, and how `awk' compares variables. * Menu: * Variable Typing:: String type versus numeric type. * Comparison Operators:: The comparison operators. * POSIX String Comparison:: String comparison with POSIX rules. File: gawk.info, Node: Variable Typing, Next: Comparison Operators, Up: Typing and Comparison 6.3.2.1 String Type Versus Numeric Type ....................................... The 1992 POSIX standard introduced the concept of a "numeric string", which is simply a string that looks like a number--for example, `" +2"'. This concept is used for determining the type of a variable. The type of the variable is important because the types of two variables determine how they are compared. The various versions of the POSIX standard did not get the rules quite right for several editions. Fortunately, as of at least the 2008 standard (and possibly earlier), the standard has been fixed, and variable typing follows these rules:(1) * A numeric constant or the result of a numeric operation has the NUMERIC attribute. * A string constant or the result of a string operation has the STRING attribute. * Fields, `getline' input, `FILENAME', `ARGV' elements, `ENVIRON' elements, and the elements of an array created by `patsplit()', `split()' and `match()' that are numeric strings have the STRNUM attribute. Otherwise, they have the STRING attribute. Uninitialized variables also have the STRNUM attribute. * Attributes propagate across assignments but are not changed by any use. The last rule is particularly important. In the following program, `a' has numeric type, even though it is later used in a string operation: BEGIN { a = 12.345 b = a " is a cute number" print b } When two operands are compared, either string comparison or numeric comparison may be used. This depends upon the attributes of the operands, according to the following symmetric matrix: +--------------------------------------------- | STRING NUMERIC STRNUM -------+--------------------------------------------- | STRING | string string string | NUMERIC | string numeric numeric | STRNUM | string numeric numeric -------+--------------------------------------------- The basic idea is that user input that looks numeric--and _only_ user input--should be treated as numeric, even though it is actually made of characters and is therefore also a string. Thus, for example, the string constant `" +3.14"', when it appears in program source code, is a string--even though it looks numeric--and is _never_ treated as number for comparison purposes. In short, when one operand is a "pure" string, such as a string constant, then a string comparison is performed. Otherwise, a numeric comparison is performed. This point bears additional emphasis: All user input is made of characters, and so is first and foremost of STRING type; input strings that look numeric are additionally given the STRNUM attribute. Thus, the six-character input string ` +3.14' receives the STRNUM attribute. In contrast, the eight-character literal `" +3.14"' appearing in program text is a string constant. The following examples print `1' when the comparison between the two different constants is true, `0' otherwise: $ echo ' +3.14' | gawk '{ print $0 == " +3.14" }' True -| 1 $ echo ' +3.14' | gawk '{ print $0 == "+3.14" }' False -| 0 $ echo ' +3.14' | gawk '{ print $0 == "3.14" }' False -| 0 $ echo ' +3.14' | gawk '{ print $0 == 3.14 }' True -| 1 $ echo ' +3.14' | gawk '{ print $1 == " +3.14" }' False -| 0 $ echo ' +3.14' | gawk '{ print $1 == "+3.14" }' True -| 1 $ echo ' +3.14' | gawk '{ print $1 == "3.14" }' False -| 0 $ echo ' +3.14' | gawk '{ print $1 == 3.14 }' True -| 1 ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) `gawk' has followed these rules for many years, and it is gratifying that the POSIX standard is also now correct. File: gawk.info, Node: Comparison Operators, Next: POSIX String Comparison, Prev: Variable Typing, Up: Typing and Comparison 6.3.2.2 Comparison Operators ............................ "Comparison expressions" compare strings or numbers for relationships such as equality. They are written using "relational operators", which are a superset of those in C. *note table-relational-ops:: describes them. Expression Result -------------------------------------------------------------------------- X `<' Y True if X is less than Y. X `<=' Y True if X is less than or equal to Y. X `>' Y True if X is greater than Y. X `>=' Y True if X is greater than or equal to Y. X `==' Y True if X is equal to Y. X `!=' Y True if X is not equal to Y. X `~' Y True if the string X matches the regexp denoted by Y. X `!~' Y True if the string X does not match the regexp denoted by Y. SUBSCRIPT `in' True if the array ARRAY has an element with the ARRAY subscript SUBSCRIPT. Table 6.3: Relational Operators Comparison expressions have the value one if true and zero if false. When comparing operands of mixed types, numeric operands are converted to strings using the value of `CONVFMT' (*note Conversion::). Strings are compared by comparing the first character of each, then the second character of each, and so on. Thus, `"10"' is less than `"9"'. If there are two strings where one is a prefix of the other, the shorter string is less than the longer one. Thus, `"abc"' is less than `"abcd"'. It is very easy to accidentally mistype the `==' operator and leave off one of the `=' characters. The result is still valid `awk' code, but the program does not do what is intended: if (a = b) # oops! should be a == b ... else ... Unless `b' happens to be zero or the null string, the `if' part of the test always succeeds. Because the operators are so similar, this kind of error is very difficult to spot when scanning the source code. The following table of expressions illustrates the kind of comparison `gawk' performs, as well as what the result of the comparison is: `1.5 <= 2.0' numeric comparison (true) `"abc" >= "xyz"' string comparison (false) `1.5 != " +2"' string comparison (true) `"1e2" < "3"' string comparison (true) `a = 2; b = "2"' `a == b' string comparison (true) `a = 2; b = " +2"' `a == b' string comparison (false) In this example: $ echo 1e2 3 | awk '{ print ($1 < $2) ? "true" : "false" }' -| false the result is `false' because both `$1' and `$2' are user input. They are numeric strings--therefore both have the STRNUM attribute, dictating a numeric comparison. The purpose of the comparison rules and the use of numeric strings is to attempt to produce the behavior that is "least surprising," while still "doing the right thing." String comparisons and regular expression comparisons are very different. For example: x == "foo" has the value one, or is true if the variable `x' is precisely `foo'. By contrast: x ~ /foo/ has the value one if `x' contains `foo', such as `"Oh, what a fool am I!"'. The righthand operand of the `~' and `!~' operators may be either a regexp constant (`/.../') or an ordinary expression. In the latter case, the value of the expression as a string is used as a dynamic regexp (*note Regexp Usage::; also *note Computed Regexps::). In modern implementations of `awk', a constant regular expression in slashes by itself is also an expression. The regexp `/REGEXP/' is an abbreviation for the following comparison expression: $0 ~ /REGEXP/ One special place where `/foo/' is _not_ an abbreviation for `$0 ~ /foo/' is when it is the righthand operand of `~' or `!~'. *Note Using Constant Regexps::, where this is discussed in more detail. File: gawk.info, Node: POSIX String Comparison, Prev: Comparison Operators, Up: Typing and Comparison 6.3.2.3 String Comparison With POSIX Rules .......................................... The POSIX standard says that string comparison is performed based on the locale's collating order. This is usually very different from the results obtained when doing straight character-by-character comparison.(1) Because this behavior differs considerably from existing practice, `gawk' only implements it when in POSIX mode (*note Options::). Here is an example to illustrate the difference, in an `en_US.UTF-8' locale: $ gawk 'BEGIN { printf("ABC < abc = %s\n", > ("ABC" < "abc" ? "TRUE" : "FALSE")) }' -| ABC < abc = TRUE $ gawk --posix 'BEGIN { printf("ABC < abc = %s\n", > ("ABC" < "abc" ? "TRUE" : "FALSE")) }' -| ABC < abc = FALSE ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Technically, string comparison is supposed to behave the same way as if the strings are compared with the C `strcoll()' function. File: gawk.info, Node: Boolean Ops, Next: Conditional Exp, Prev: Typing and Comparison, Up: Truth Values and Conditions 6.3.3 Boolean Expressions ------------------------- A "Boolean expression" is a combination of comparison expressions or matching expressions, using the Boolean operators "or" (`||'), "and" (`&&'), and "not" (`!'), along with parentheses to control nesting. The truth value of the Boolean expression is computed by combining the truth values of the component expressions. Boolean expressions are also referred to as "logical expressions". The terms are equivalent. Boolean expressions can be used wherever comparison and matching expressions can be used. They can be used in `if', `while', `do', and `for' statements (*note Statements::). They have numeric values (one if true, zero if false) that come into play if the result of the Boolean expression is stored in a variable or used in arithmetic. In addition, every Boolean expression is also a valid pattern, so you can use one as a pattern to control the execution of rules. The Boolean operators are: `BOOLEAN1 && BOOLEAN2' True if both BOOLEAN1 and BOOLEAN2 are true. For example, the following statement prints the current input record if it contains both `2400' and `foo': if ($0 ~ /2400/ && $0 ~ /foo/) print The subexpression BOOLEAN2 is evaluated only if BOOLEAN1 is true. This can make a difference when BOOLEAN2 contains expressions that have side effects. In the case of `$0 ~ /foo/ && ($2 == bar++)', the variable `bar' is not incremented if there is no substring `foo' in the record. `BOOLEAN1 || BOOLEAN2' True if at least one of BOOLEAN1 or BOOLEAN2 is true. For example, the following statement prints all records in the input that contain _either_ `2400' or `foo' or both: if ($0 ~ /2400/ || $0 ~ /foo/) print The subexpression BOOLEAN2 is evaluated only if BOOLEAN1 is false. This can make a difference when BOOLEAN2 contains expressions that have side effects. `! BOOLEAN' True if BOOLEAN is false. For example, the following program prints `no home!' in the unusual event that the `HOME' environment variable is not defined: BEGIN { if (! ("HOME" in ENVIRON)) print "no home!" } (The `in' operator is described in *note Reference to Elements::.) The `&&' and `||' operators are called "short-circuit" operators because of the way they work. Evaluation of the full expression is "short-circuited" if the result can be determined part way through its evaluation. Statements that use `&&' or `||' can be continued simply by putting a newline after them. But you cannot put a newline in front of either of these operators without using backslash continuation (*note Statements/Lines::). The actual value of an expression using the `!' operator is either one or zero, depending upon the truth value of the expression it is applied to. The `!' operator is often useful for changing the sense of a flag variable from false to true and back again. For example, the following program is one way to print lines in between special bracketing lines: $1 == "START" { interested = ! interested; next } interested == 1 { print } $1 == "END" { interested = ! interested; next } The variable `interested', as with all `awk' variables, starts out initialized to zero, which is also false. When a line is seen whose first field is `START', the value of `interested' is toggled to true, using `!'. The next rule prints lines as long as `interested' is true. When a line is seen whose first field is `END', `interested' is toggled back to false.(1) NOTE: The `next' statement is discussed in *note Next Statement::. `next' tells `awk' to skip the rest of the rules, get the next record, and start processing the rules over again at the top. The reason it's there is to avoid printing the bracketing `START' and `END' lines. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This program has a bug; it prints lines starting with `END'. How would you fix it? File: gawk.info, Node: Conditional Exp, Prev: Boolean Ops, Up: Truth Values and Conditions 6.3.4 Conditional Expressions ----------------------------- A "conditional expression" is a special kind of expression that has three operands. It allows you to use one expression's value to select one of two other expressions. The conditional expression is the same as in the C language, as shown here: SELECTOR ? IF-TRUE-EXP : IF-FALSE-EXP There are three subexpressions. The first, SELECTOR, is always computed first. If it is "true" (not zero or not null), then IF-TRUE-EXP is computed next and its value becomes the value of the whole expression. Otherwise, IF-FALSE-EXP is computed next and its value becomes the value of the whole expression. For example, the following expression produces the absolute value of `x': x >= 0 ? x : -x Each time the conditional expression is computed, only one of IF-TRUE-EXP and IF-FALSE-EXP is used; the other is ignored. This is important when the expressions have side effects. For example, this conditional expression examines element `i' of either array `a' or array `b', and increments `i': x == y ? a[i++] : b[i++] This is guaranteed to increment `i' exactly once, because each time only one of the two increment expressions is executed and the other is not. *Note Arrays::, for more information about arrays. As a minor `gawk' extension, a statement that uses `?:' can be continued simply by putting a newline after either character. However, putting a newline in front of either character does not work without using backslash continuation (*note Statements/Lines::). If `--posix' is specified (*note Options::), then this extension is disabled. File: gawk.info, Node: Function Calls, Next: Precedence, Prev: Truth Values and Conditions, Up: Expressions 6.4 Function Calls ================== A "function" is a name for a particular calculation. This enables you to ask for it by name at any point in the program. For example, the function `sqrt()' computes the square root of a number. A fixed set of functions are "built-in", which means they are available in every `awk' program. The `sqrt()' function is one of these. *Note Built-in::, for a list of built-in functions and their descriptions. In addition, you can define functions for use in your program. *Note User-defined::, for instructions on how to do this. The way to use a function is with a "function call" expression, which consists of the function name followed immediately by a list of "arguments" in parentheses. The arguments are expressions that provide the raw materials for the function's calculations. When there is more than one argument, they are separated by commas. If there are no arguments, just write `()' after the function name. The following examples show function calls with and without arguments: sqrt(x^2 + y^2) one argument atan2(y, x) two arguments rand() no arguments CAUTION: Do not put any space between the function name and the open-parenthesis! A user-defined function name looks just like the name of a variable--a space would make the expression look like concatenation of a variable with an expression inside parentheses. With built-in functions, space before the parenthesis is harmless, but it is best not to get into the habit of using space to avoid mistakes with user-defined functions. Each function expects a particular number of arguments. For example, the `sqrt()' function must be called with a single argument, the number of which to take the square root: sqrt(ARGUMENT) Some of the built-in functions have one or more optional arguments. If those arguments are not supplied, the functions use a reasonable default value. *Note Built-in::, for full details. If arguments are omitted in calls to user-defined functions, then those arguments are treated as local variables and initialized to the empty string (*note User-defined::). As an advanced feature, `gawk' provides indirect function calls, which is a way to choose the function to call at runtime, instead of when you write the source code to your program. We defer discussion of this feature until later; see *note Indirect Calls::. Like every other expression, the function call has a value, which is computed by the function based on the arguments you give it. In this example, the value of `sqrt(ARGUMENT)' is the square root of ARGUMENT. The following program reads numbers, one number per line, and prints the square root of each one: $ awk '{ print "The square root of", $1, "is", sqrt($1) }' 1 -| The square root of 1 is 1 3 -| The square root of 3 is 1.73205 5 -| The square root of 5 is 2.23607 Ctrl-d A function can also have side effects, such as assigning values to certain variables or doing I/O. This program shows how the `match()' function (*note String Functions::) changes the variables `RSTART' and `RLENGTH': { if (match($1, $2)) print RSTART, RLENGTH else print "no match" } Here is a sample run: $ awk -f matchit.awk aaccdd c+ -| 3 2 foo bar -| no match abcdefg e -| 5 1 File: gawk.info, Node: Precedence, Prev: Function Calls, Up: Expressions 6.5 Operator Precedence (How Operators Nest) ============================================ "Operator precedence" determines how operators are grouped when different operators appear close by in one expression. For example, `*' has higher precedence than `+'; thus, `a + b * c' means to multiply `b' and `c', and then add `a' to the product (i.e., `a + (b * c)'). The normal precedence of the operators can be overruled by using parentheses. Think of the precedence rules as saying where the parentheses are assumed to be. In fact, it is wise to always use parentheses whenever there is an unusual combination of operators, because other people who read the program may not remember what the precedence is in this case. Even experienced programmers occasionally forget the exact rules, which leads to mistakes. Explicit parentheses help prevent any such mistakes. When operators of equal precedence are used together, the leftmost operator groups first, except for the assignment, conditional, and exponentiation operators, which group in the opposite order. Thus, `a - b + c' groups as `(a - b) + c' and `a = b = c' groups as `a = (b = c)'. Normally the precedence of prefix unary operators does not matter, because there is only one way to interpret them: innermost first. Thus, `$++i' means `$(++i)' and `++$x' means `++($x)'. However, when another operator follows the operand, then the precedence of the unary operators can matter. `$x^2' means `($x)^2', but `-x^2' means `-(x^2)', because `-' has lower precedence than `^', whereas `$' has higher precedence. Also, operators cannot be combined in a way that violates the precedence rules; for example, `$$0++--' is not a valid expression because the first `$' has higher precedence than the `++'; to avoid the problem the expression can be rewritten as `$($0++)--'. This table presents `awk''s operators, in order of highest to lowest precedence: `(...)' Grouping. `$' Field reference. `++ --' Increment, decrement. `^ **' Exponentiation. These operators group right-to-left. `+ - !' Unary plus, minus, logical "not." `* / %' Multiplication, division, remainder. `+ -' Addition, subtraction. `String Concatenation' There is no special symbol for concatenation. The operands are simply written side by side (*note Concatenation::). `< <= == != > >= >> | |&' Relational and redirection. The relational operators and the redirections have the same precedence level. Characters such as `>' serve both as relationals and as redirections; the context distinguishes between the two meanings. Note that the I/O redirection operators in `print' and `printf' statements belong to the statement level, not to expressions. The redirection does not produce an expression that could be the operand of another operator. As a result, it does not make sense to use a redirection operator near another operator of lower precedence without parentheses. Such combinations (for example, `print foo > a ? b : c'), result in syntax errors. The correct way to write this statement is `print foo > (a ? b : c)'. `~ !~' Matching, nonmatching. `in' Array membership. `&&' Logical "and". `||' Logical "or". `?:' Conditional. This operator groups right-to-left. `= += -= *= /= %= ^= **=' Assignment. These operators group right-to-left. NOTE: The `|&', `**', and `**=' operators are not specified by POSIX. For maximum portability, do not use them. File: gawk.info, Node: Patterns and Actions, Next: Arrays, Prev: Expressions, Up: Top 7 Patterns, Actions, and Variables ********************************** As you have already seen, each `awk' statement consists of a pattern with an associated action. This major node describes how you build patterns and actions, what kinds of things you can do within actions, and `awk''s built-in variables. The pattern-action rules and the statements available for use within actions form the core of `awk' programming. In a sense, everything covered up to here has been the foundation that programs are built on top of. Now it's time to start building something useful. * Menu: * Pattern Overview:: What goes into a pattern. * Using Shell Variables:: How to use shell variables with `awk'. * Action Overview:: What goes into an action. * Statements:: Describes the various control statements in detail. * Built-in Variables:: Summarizes the built-in variables. File: gawk.info, Node: Pattern Overview, Next: Using Shell Variables, Up: Patterns and Actions 7.1 Pattern Elements ==================== * Menu: * Regexp Patterns:: Using regexps as patterns. * Expression Patterns:: Any expression can be used as a pattern. * Ranges:: Pairs of patterns specify record ranges. * BEGIN/END:: Specifying initialization and cleanup rules. * BEGINFILE/ENDFILE:: Two special patterns for advanced control. * Empty:: The empty pattern, which matches every record. Patterns in `awk' control the execution of rules--a rule is executed when its pattern matches the current input record. The following is a summary of the types of `awk' patterns: `/REGULAR EXPRESSION/' A regular expression. It matches when the text of the input record fits the regular expression. (*Note Regexp::.) `EXPRESSION' A single expression. It matches when its value is nonzero (if a number) or non-null (if a string). (*Note Expression Patterns::.) `PAT1, PAT2' A pair of patterns separated by a comma, specifying a range of records. The range includes both the initial record that matches PAT1 and the final record that matches PAT2. (*Note Ranges::.) `BEGIN' `END' Special patterns for you to supply startup or cleanup actions for your `awk' program. (*Note BEGIN/END::.) `BEGINFILE' `ENDFILE' Special patterns for you to supply startup or cleanup actions to done on a per file basis. (*Note BEGINFILE/ENDFILE::.) `EMPTY' The empty pattern matches every input record. (*Note Empty::.) File: gawk.info, Node: Regexp Patterns, Next: Expression Patterns, Up: Pattern Overview 7.1.1 Regular Expressions as Patterns ------------------------------------- Regular expressions are one of the first kinds of patterns presented in this book. This kind of pattern is simply a regexp constant in the pattern part of a rule. Its meaning is `$0 ~ /PATTERN/'. The pattern matches when the input record matches the regexp. For example: /foo|bar|baz/ { buzzwords++ } END { print buzzwords, "buzzwords seen" } File: gawk.info, Node: Expression Patterns, Next: Ranges, Prev: Regexp Patterns, Up: Pattern Overview 7.1.2 Expressions as Patterns ----------------------------- Any `awk' expression is valid as an `awk' pattern. The pattern matches if the expression's value is nonzero (if a number) or non-null (if a string). The expression is reevaluated each time the rule is tested against a new input record. If the expression uses fields such as `$1', the value depends directly on the new input record's text; otherwise, it depends on only what has happened so far in the execution of the `awk' program. Comparison expressions, using the comparison operators described in *note Typing and Comparison::, are a very common kind of pattern. Regexp matching and nonmatching are also very common expressions. The left operand of the `~' and `!~' operators is a string. The right operand is either a constant regular expression enclosed in slashes (`/REGEXP/'), or any expression whose string value is used as a dynamic regular expression (*note Computed Regexps::). The following example prints the second field of each input record whose first field is precisely `foo': $ awk '$1 == "foo" { print $2 }' BBS-list (There is no output, because there is no BBS site with the exact name `foo'.) Contrast this with the following regular expression match, which accepts any record with a first field that contains `foo': $ awk '$1 ~ /foo/ { print $2 }' BBS-list -| 555-1234 -| 555-6699 -| 555-6480 -| 555-2127 A regexp constant as a pattern is also a special case of an expression pattern. The expression `/foo/' has the value one if `foo' appears in the current input record. Thus, as a pattern, `/foo/' matches any record containing `foo'. Boolean expressions are also commonly used as patterns. Whether the pattern matches an input record depends on whether its subexpressions match. For example, the following command prints all the records in `BBS-list' that contain both `2400' and `foo': $ awk '/2400/ && /foo/' BBS-list -| fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B The following command prints all records in `BBS-list' that contain _either_ `2400' or `foo' (or both, of course): $ awk '/2400/ || /foo/' BBS-list -| alpo-net 555-3412 2400/1200/300 A -| bites 555-1675 2400/1200/300 A -| fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B -| foot 555-6699 1200/300 B -| macfoo 555-6480 1200/300 A -| sdace 555-3430 2400/1200/300 A -| sabafoo 555-2127 1200/300 C The following command prints all records in `BBS-list' that do _not_ contain the string `foo': $ awk '! /foo/' BBS-list -| aardvark 555-5553 1200/300 B -| alpo-net 555-3412 2400/1200/300 A -| barfly 555-7685 1200/300 A -| bites 555-1675 2400/1200/300 A -| camelot 555-0542 300 C -| core 555-2912 1200/300 C -| sdace 555-3430 2400/1200/300 A The subexpressions of a Boolean operator in a pattern can be constant regular expressions, comparisons, or any other `awk' expressions. Range patterns are not expressions, so they cannot appear inside Boolean patterns. Likewise, the special patterns `BEGIN', `END', `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE', which never match any input record, are not expressions and cannot appear inside Boolean patterns. File: gawk.info, Node: Ranges, Next: BEGIN/END, Prev: Expression Patterns, Up: Pattern Overview 7.1.3 Specifying Record Ranges with Patterns -------------------------------------------- A "range pattern" is made of two patterns separated by a comma, in the form `BEGPAT, ENDPAT'. It is used to match ranges of consecutive input records. The first pattern, BEGPAT, controls where the range begins, while ENDPAT controls where the pattern ends. For example, the following: awk '$1 == "on", $1 == "off"' myfile prints every record in `myfile' between `on'/`off' pairs, inclusive. A range pattern starts out by matching BEGPAT against every input record. When a record matches BEGPAT, the range pattern is "turned on" and the range pattern matches this record as well. As long as the range pattern stays turned on, it automatically matches every input record read. The range pattern also matches ENDPAT against every input record; when this succeeds, the range pattern is turned off again for the following record. Then the range pattern goes back to checking BEGPAT against each record. The record that turns on the range pattern and the one that turns it off both match the range pattern. If you don't want to operate on these records, you can write `if' statements in the rule's action to distinguish them from the records you are interested in. It is possible for a pattern to be turned on and off by the same record. If the record satisfies both conditions, then the action is executed for just that record. For example, suppose there is text between two identical markers (e.g., the `%' symbol), each on its own line, that should be ignored. A first attempt would be to combine a range pattern that describes the delimited text with the `next' statement (not discussed yet, *note Next Statement::). This causes `awk' to skip any further processing of the current record and start over again with the next input record. Such a program looks like this: /^%$/,/^%$/ { next } { print } This program fails because the range pattern is both turned on and turned off by the first line, which just has a `%' on it. To accomplish this task, write the program in the following manner, using a flag: /^%$/ { skip = ! skip; next } skip == 1 { next } # skip lines with `skip' set In a range pattern, the comma (`,') has the lowest precedence of all the operators (i.e., it is evaluated last). Thus, the following program attempts to combine a range pattern with another, simpler test: echo Yes | awk '/1/,/2/ || /Yes/' The intent of this program is `(/1/,/2/) || /Yes/'. However, `awk' interprets this as `/1/, (/2/ || /Yes/)'. This cannot be changed or worked around; range patterns do not combine with other patterns: $ echo Yes | gawk '(/1/,/2/) || /Yes/' error--> gawk: cmd. line:1: (/1/,/2/) || /Yes/ error--> gawk: cmd. line:1: ^ syntax error File: gawk.info, Node: BEGIN/END, Next: BEGINFILE/ENDFILE, Prev: Ranges, Up: Pattern Overview 7.1.4 The `BEGIN' and `END' Special Patterns -------------------------------------------- All the patterns described so far are for matching input records. The `BEGIN' and `END' special patterns are different. They supply startup and cleanup actions for `awk' programs. `BEGIN' and `END' rules must have actions; there is no default action for these rules because there is no current record when they run. `BEGIN' and `END' rules are often referred to as "`BEGIN' and `END' blocks" by long-time `awk' programmers. * Menu: * Using BEGIN/END:: How and why to use BEGIN/END rules. * I/O And BEGIN/END:: I/O issues in BEGIN/END rules. File: gawk.info, Node: Using BEGIN/END, Next: I/O And BEGIN/END, Up: BEGIN/END 7.1.4.1 Startup and Cleanup Actions ................................... A `BEGIN' rule is executed once only, before the first input record is read. Likewise, an `END' rule is executed once only, after all the input is read. For example: $ awk ' > BEGIN { print "Analysis of \"foo\"" } > /foo/ { ++n } > END { print "\"foo\" appears", n, "times." }' BBS-list -| Analysis of "foo" -| "foo" appears 4 times. This program finds the number of records in the input file `BBS-list' that contain the string `foo'. The `BEGIN' rule prints a title for the report. There is no need to use the `BEGIN' rule to initialize the counter `n' to zero, since `awk' does this automatically (*note Variables::). The second rule increments the variable `n' every time a record containing the pattern `foo' is read. The `END' rule prints the value of `n' at the end of the run. The special patterns `BEGIN' and `END' cannot be used in ranges or with Boolean operators (indeed, they cannot be used with any operators). An `awk' program may have multiple `BEGIN' and/or `END' rules. They are executed in the order in which they appear: all the `BEGIN' rules at startup and all the `END' rules at termination. `BEGIN' and `END' rules may be intermixed with other rules. This feature was added in the 1987 version of `awk' and is included in the POSIX standard. The original (1978) version of `awk' required the `BEGIN' rule to be placed at the beginning of the program, the `END' rule to be placed at the end, and only allowed one of each. This is no longer required, but it is a good idea to follow this template in terms of program organization and readability. Multiple `BEGIN' and `END' rules are useful for writing library functions, because each library file can have its own `BEGIN' and/or `END' rule to do its own initialization and/or cleanup. The order in which library functions are named on the command line controls the order in which their `BEGIN' and `END' rules are executed. Therefore, you have to be careful when writing such rules in library files so that the order in which they are executed doesn't matter. *Note Options::, for more information on using library functions. *Note Library Functions::, for a number of useful library functions. If an `awk' program has only `BEGIN' rules and no other rules, then the program exits after the `BEGIN' rule is run.(1) However, if an `END' rule exists, then the input is read, even if there are no other rules in the program. This is necessary in case the `END' rule checks the `FNR' and `NR' variables. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The original version of `awk' kept reading and ignoring input until the end of the file was seen. File: gawk.info, Node: I/O And BEGIN/END, Prev: Using BEGIN/END, Up: BEGIN/END 7.1.4.2 Input/Output from `BEGIN' and `END' Rules ................................................. There are several (sometimes subtle) points to remember when doing I/O from a `BEGIN' or `END' rule. The first has to do with the value of `$0' in a `BEGIN' rule. Because `BEGIN' rules are executed before any input is read, there simply is no input record, and therefore no fields, when executing `BEGIN' rules. References to `$0' and the fields yield a null string or zero, depending upon the context. One way to give `$0' a real value is to execute a `getline' command without a variable (*note Getline::). Another way is simply to assign a value to `$0'. The second point is similar to the first but from the other direction. Traditionally, due largely to implementation issues, `$0' and `NF' were _undefined_ inside an `END' rule. The POSIX standard specifies that `NF' is available in an `END' rule. It contains the number of fields from the last input record. Most probably due to an oversight, the standard does not say that `$0' is also preserved, although logically one would think that it should be. In fact, `gawk' does preserve the value of `$0' for use in `END' rules. Be aware, however, that Brian Kernighan's `awk', and possibly other implementations, do not. The third point follows from the first two. The meaning of `print' inside a `BEGIN' or `END' rule is the same as always: `print $0'. If `$0' is the null string, then this prints an empty record. Many long time `awk' programmers use an unadorned `print' in `BEGIN' and `END' rules, to mean `print ""', relying on `$0' being null. Although one might generally get away with this in `BEGIN' rules, it is a very bad idea in `END' rules, at least in `gawk'. It is also poor style, since if an empty line is needed in the output, the program should print one explicitly. Finally, the `next' and `nextfile' statements are not allowed in a `BEGIN' rule, because the implicit read-a-record-and-match-against-the-rules loop has not started yet. Similarly, those statements are not valid in an `END' rule, since all the input has been read. (*Note Next Statement::, and see *note Nextfile Statement::.) File: gawk.info, Node: BEGINFILE/ENDFILE, Next: Empty, Prev: BEGIN/END, Up: Pattern Overview 7.1.5 The `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE' Special Patterns ---------------------------------------------------- This minor node describes a `gawk'-specific feature. Two special kinds of rule, `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE', give you "hooks" into `gawk''s command-line file processing loop. As with the `BEGIN' and `END' rules (*note BEGIN/END::), all `BEGINFILE' rules in a program are merged, in the order they are read by `gawk', and all `ENDFILE' rules are merged as well. The body of the `BEGINFILE' rules is executed just before `gawk' reads the first record from a file. `FILENAME' is set to the name of the current file, and `FNR' is set to zero. The `BEGINFILE' rule provides you the opportunity for two tasks that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to perform: * You can test if the file is readable. Normally, it is a fatal error if a file named on the command line cannot be opened for reading. However, you can bypass the fatal error and move on to the next file on the command line. You do this by checking if the `ERRNO' variable is not the empty string; if so, then `gawk' was not able to open the file. In this case, your program can execute the `nextfile' statement (*note Nextfile Statement::). This causes `gawk' to skip the file entirely. Otherwise, `gawk' exits with the usual fatal error. * If you have written extensions that modify the record handling (by inserting an "open hook"), you can invoke them at this point, before `gawk' has started processing the file. (This is a _very_ advanced feature, currently used only by the XMLgawk project (http://xgawk.sourceforge.net).) The `ENDFILE' rule is called when `gawk' has finished processing the last record in an input file. For the last input file, it will be called before any `END' rules. Normally, when an error occurs when reading input in the normal input processing loop, the error is fatal. However, if an `ENDFILE' rule is present, the error becomes non-fatal, and instead `ERRNO' is set. This makes it possible to catch and process I/O errors at the level of the `awk' program. The `next' statement (*note Next Statement::) is not allowed inside either a `BEGINFILE' or and `ENDFILE' rule. The `nextfile' statement (*note Nextfile Statement::) is allowed only inside a `BEGINFILE' rule, but not inside an `ENDFILE' rule. The `getline' statement (*note Getline::) is restricted inside both `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE'. Only the `getline VARIABLE < FILE' form is allowed. `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE' are `gawk' extensions. In most other `awk' implementations, or if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), they are not special. File: gawk.info, Node: Empty, Prev: BEGINFILE/ENDFILE, Up: Pattern Overview 7.1.6 The Empty Pattern ----------------------- An empty (i.e., nonexistent) pattern is considered to match _every_ input record. For example, the program: awk '{ print $1 }' BBS-list prints the first field of every record. File: gawk.info, Node: Using Shell Variables, Next: Action Overview, Prev: Pattern Overview, Up: Patterns and Actions 7.2 Using Shell Variables in Programs ===================================== `awk' programs are often used as components in larger programs written in shell. For example, it is very common to use a shell variable to hold a pattern that the `awk' program searches for. There are two ways to get the value of the shell variable into the body of the `awk' program. The most common method is to use shell quoting to substitute the variable's value into the program inside the script. For example, in the following program: printf "Enter search pattern: " read pattern awk "/$pattern/ "'{ nmatches++ } END { print nmatches, "found" }' /path/to/data the `awk' program consists of two pieces of quoted text that are concatenated together to form the program. The first part is double-quoted, which allows substitution of the `pattern' shell variable inside the quotes. The second part is single-quoted. Variable substitution via quoting works, but can be potentially messy. It requires a good understanding of the shell's quoting rules (*note Quoting::), and it's often difficult to correctly match up the quotes when reading the program. A better method is to use `awk''s variable assignment feature (*note Assignment Options::) to assign the shell variable's value to an `awk' variable's value. Then use dynamic regexps to match the pattern (*note Computed Regexps::). The following shows how to redo the previous example using this technique: printf "Enter search pattern: " read pattern awk -v pat="$pattern" '$0 ~ pat { nmatches++ } END { print nmatches, "found" }' /path/to/data Now, the `awk' program is just one single-quoted string. The assignment `-v pat="$pattern"' still requires double quotes, in case there is whitespace in the value of `$pattern'. The `awk' variable `pat' could be named `pattern' too, but that would be more confusing. Using a variable also provides more flexibility, since the variable can be used anywhere inside the program--for printing, as an array subscript, or for any other use--without requiring the quoting tricks at every point in the program. File: gawk.info, Node: Action Overview, Next: Statements, Prev: Using Shell Variables, Up: Patterns and Actions 7.3 Actions =========== An `awk' program or script consists of a series of rules and function definitions interspersed. (Functions are described later. *Note User-defined::.) A rule contains a pattern and an action, either of which (but not both) may be omitted. The purpose of the "action" is to tell `awk' what to do once a match for the pattern is found. Thus, in outline, an `awk' program generally looks like this: [PATTERN] { ACTION } PATTERN [{ ACTION }] ... function NAME(ARGS) { ... } ... An action consists of one or more `awk' "statements", enclosed in curly braces (`{...}'). Each statement specifies one thing to do. The statements are separated by newlines or semicolons. The curly braces around an action must be used even if the action contains only one statement, or if it contains no statements at all. However, if you omit the action entirely, omit the curly braces as well. An omitted action is equivalent to `{ print $0 }': /foo/ { } match `foo', do nothing -- empty action /foo/ match `foo', print the record -- omitted action The following types of statements are supported in `awk': Expressions Call functions or assign values to variables (*note Expressions::). Executing this kind of statement simply computes the value of the expression. This is useful when the expression has side effects (*note Assignment Ops::). Control statements Specify the control flow of `awk' programs. The `awk' language gives you C-like constructs (`if', `for', `while', and `do') as well as a few special ones (*note Statements::). Compound statements Consist of one or more statements enclosed in curly braces. A compound statement is used in order to put several statements together in the body of an `if', `while', `do', or `for' statement. Input statements Use the `getline' command (*note Getline::). Also supplied in `awk' are the `next' statement (*note Next Statement::), and the `nextfile' statement (*note Nextfile Statement::). Output statements Such as `print' and `printf'. *Note Printing::. Deletion statements For deleting array elements. *Note Delete::. File: gawk.info, Node: Statements, Next: Built-in Variables, Prev: Action Overview, Up: Patterns and Actions 7.4 Control Statements in Actions ================================= "Control statements", such as `if', `while', and so on, control the flow of execution in `awk' programs. Most of `awk''s control statements are patterned after similar statements in C. All the control statements start with special keywords, such as `if' and `while', to distinguish them from simple expressions. Many control statements contain other statements. For example, the `if' statement contains another statement that may or may not be executed. The contained statement is called the "body". To include more than one statement in the body, group them into a single "compound statement" with curly braces, separating them with newlines or semicolons. * Menu: * If Statement:: Conditionally execute some `awk' statements. * While Statement:: Loop until some condition is satisfied. * Do Statement:: Do specified action while looping until some condition is satisfied. * For Statement:: Another looping statement, that provides initialization and increment clauses. * Switch Statement:: Switch/case evaluation for conditional execution of statements based on a value. * Break Statement:: Immediately exit the innermost enclosing loop. * Continue Statement:: Skip to the end of the innermost enclosing loop. * Next Statement:: Stop processing the current input record. * Nextfile Statement:: Stop processing the current file. * Exit Statement:: Stop execution of `awk'. File: gawk.info, Node: If Statement, Next: While Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.1 The `if'-`else' Statement ------------------------------- The `if'-`else' statement is `awk''s decision-making statement. It looks like this: if (CONDITION) THEN-BODY [else ELSE-BODY] The CONDITION is an expression that controls what the rest of the statement does. If the CONDITION is true, THEN-BODY is executed; otherwise, ELSE-BODY is executed. The `else' part of the statement is optional. The condition is considered false if its value is zero or the null string; otherwise, the condition is true. Refer to the following: if (x % 2 == 0) print "x is even" else print "x is odd" In this example, if the expression `x % 2 == 0' is true (that is, if the value of `x' is evenly divisible by two), then the first `print' statement is executed; otherwise, the second `print' statement is executed. If the `else' keyword appears on the same line as THEN-BODY and THEN-BODY is not a compound statement (i.e., not surrounded by curly braces), then a semicolon must separate THEN-BODY from the `else'. To illustrate this, the previous example can be rewritten as: if (x % 2 == 0) print "x is even"; else print "x is odd" If the `;' is left out, `awk' can't interpret the statement and it produces a syntax error. Don't actually write programs this way, because a human reader might fail to see the `else' if it is not the first thing on its line. File: gawk.info, Node: While Statement, Next: Do Statement, Prev: If Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.2 The `while' Statement --------------------------- In programming, a "loop" is a part of a program that can be executed two or more times in succession. The `while' statement is the simplest looping statement in `awk'. It repeatedly executes a statement as long as a condition is true. For example: while (CONDITION) BODY BODY is a statement called the "body" of the loop, and CONDITION is an expression that controls how long the loop keeps running. The first thing the `while' statement does is test the CONDITION. If the CONDITION is true, it executes the statement BODY. (The CONDITION is true when the value is not zero and not a null string.) After BODY has been executed, CONDITION is tested again, and if it is still true, BODY is executed again. This process repeats until the CONDITION is no longer true. If the CONDITION is initially false, the body of the loop is never executed and `awk' continues with the statement following the loop. This example prints the first three fields of each record, one per line: awk '{ i = 1 while (i <= 3) { print $i i++ } }' inventory-shipped The body of this loop is a compound statement enclosed in braces, containing two statements. The loop works in the following manner: first, the value of `i' is set to one. Then, the `while' statement tests whether `i' is less than or equal to three. This is true when `i' equals one, so the `i'-th field is printed. Then the `i++' increments the value of `i' and the loop repeats. The loop terminates when `i' reaches four. A newline is not required between the condition and the body; however using one makes the program clearer unless the body is a compound statement or else is very simple. The newline after the open-brace that begins the compound statement is not required either, but the program is harder to read without it. File: gawk.info, Node: Do Statement, Next: For Statement, Prev: While Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.3 The `do'-`while' Statement -------------------------------- The `do' loop is a variation of the `while' looping statement. The `do' loop executes the BODY once and then repeats the BODY as long as the CONDITION is true. It looks like this: do BODY while (CONDITION) Even if the CONDITION is false at the start, the BODY is executed at least once (and only once, unless executing BODY makes CONDITION true). Contrast this with the corresponding `while' statement: while (CONDITION) BODY This statement does not execute BODY even once if the CONDITION is false to begin with. The following is an example of a `do' statement: { i = 1 do { print $0 i++ } while (i <= 10) } This program prints each input record 10 times. However, it isn't a very realistic example, since in this case an ordinary `while' would do just as well. This situation reflects actual experience; only occasionally is there a real use for a `do' statement. File: gawk.info, Node: For Statement, Next: Switch Statement, Prev: Do Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.4 The `for' Statement ------------------------- The `for' statement makes it more convenient to count iterations of a loop. The general form of the `for' statement looks like this: for (INITIALIZATION; CONDITION; INCREMENT) BODY The INITIALIZATION, CONDITION, and INCREMENT parts are arbitrary `awk' expressions, and BODY stands for any `awk' statement. The `for' statement starts by executing INITIALIZATION. Then, as long as the CONDITION is true, it repeatedly executes BODY and then INCREMENT. Typically, INITIALIZATION sets a variable to either zero or one, INCREMENT adds one to it, and CONDITION compares it against the desired number of iterations. For example: awk '{ for (i = 1; i <= 3; i++) print $i }' inventory-shipped This prints the first three fields of each input record, with one field per line. It isn't possible to set more than one variable in the INITIALIZATION part without using a multiple assignment statement such as `x = y = 0'. This makes sense only if all the initial values are equal. (But it is possible to initialize additional variables by writing their assignments as separate statements preceding the `for' loop.) The same is true of the INCREMENT part. Incrementing additional variables requires separate statements at the end of the loop. The C compound expression, using C's comma operator, is useful in this context but it is not supported in `awk'. Most often, INCREMENT is an increment expression, as in the previous example. But this is not required; it can be any expression whatsoever. For example, the following statement prints all the powers of two between 1 and 100: for (i = 1; i <= 100; i *= 2) print i If there is nothing to be done, any of the three expressions in the parentheses following the `for' keyword may be omitted. Thus, `for (; x > 0;)' is equivalent to `while (x > 0)'. If the CONDITION is omitted, it is treated as true, effectively yielding an "infinite loop" (i.e., a loop that never terminates). In most cases, a `for' loop is an abbreviation for a `while' loop, as shown here: INITIALIZATION while (CONDITION) { BODY INCREMENT } The only exception is when the `continue' statement (*note Continue Statement::) is used inside the loop. Changing a `for' statement to a `while' statement in this way can change the effect of the `continue' statement inside the loop. The `awk' language has a `for' statement in addition to a `while' statement because a `for' loop is often both less work to type and more natural to think of. Counting the number of iterations is very common in loops. It can be easier to think of this counting as part of looping rather than as something to do inside the loop. There is an alternate version of the `for' loop, for iterating over all the indices of an array: for (i in array) DO SOMETHING WITH array[i] *Note Scanning an Array::, for more information on this version of the `for' loop. File: gawk.info, Node: Switch Statement, Next: Break Statement, Prev: For Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.5 The `switch' Statement ---------------------------- The `switch' statement allows the evaluation of an expression and the execution of statements based on a `case' match. Case statements are checked for a match in the order they are defined. If no suitable `case' is found, the `default' section is executed, if supplied. Each `case' contains a single constant, be it numeric, string, or regexp. The `switch' expression is evaluated, and then each `case''s constant is compared against the result in turn. The type of constant determines the comparison: numeric or string do the usual comparisons. A regexp constant does a regular expression match against the string value of the original expression. The general form of the `switch' statement looks like this: switch (EXPRESSION) { case VALUE OR REGULAR EXPRESSION: CASE-BODY default: DEFAULT-BODY } Control flow in the `switch' statement works as it does in C. Once a match to a given case is made, the case statement bodies execute until a `break', `continue', `next', `nextfile' or `exit' is encountered, or the end of the `switch' statement itself. For example: switch (NR * 2 + 1) { case 3: case "11": print NR - 1 break case /2[[:digit:]]+/: print NR default: print NR + 1 case -1: print NR * -1 } Note that if none of the statements specified above halt execution of a matched `case' statement, execution falls through to the next `case' until execution halts. In the above example, for any case value starting with `2' followed by one or more digits, the `print' statement is executed and then falls through into the `default' section, executing its `print' statement. In turn, the -1 case will also be executed since the `default' does not halt execution. This `switch' statement is a `gawk' extension. If `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), it is not available. File: gawk.info, Node: Break Statement, Next: Continue Statement, Prev: Switch Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.6 The `break' Statement --------------------------- The `break' statement jumps out of the innermost `for', `while', or `do' loop that encloses it. The following example finds the smallest divisor of any integer, and also identifies prime numbers: # find smallest divisor of num { num = $1 for (div = 2; div * div <= num; div++) { if (num % div == 0) break } if (num % div == 0) printf "Smallest divisor of %d is %d\n", num, div else printf "%d is prime\n", num } When the remainder is zero in the first `if' statement, `awk' immediately "breaks out" of the containing `for' loop. This means that `awk' proceeds immediately to the statement following the loop and continues processing. (This is very different from the `exit' statement, which stops the entire `awk' program. *Note Exit Statement::.) The following program illustrates how the CONDITION of a `for' or `while' statement could be replaced with a `break' inside an `if': # find smallest divisor of num { num = $1 for (div = 2; ; div++) { if (num % div == 0) { printf "Smallest divisor of %d is %d\n", num, div break } if (div * div > num) { printf "%d is prime\n", num break } } } The `break' statement is also used to break out of the `switch' statement. This is discussed in *note Switch Statement::. The `break' statement has no meaning when used outside the body of a loop or `switch'. However, although it was never documented, historical implementations of `awk' treated the `break' statement outside of a loop as if it were a `next' statement (*note Next Statement::). (d.c.) Recent versions of Brian Kernighan's `awk' no longer allow this usage, nor does `gawk'. File: gawk.info, Node: Continue Statement, Next: Next Statement, Prev: Break Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.7 The `continue' Statement ------------------------------ Similar to `break', the `continue' statement is used only inside `for', `while', and `do' loops. It skips over the rest of the loop body, causing the next cycle around the loop to begin immediately. Contrast this with `break', which jumps out of the loop altogether. The `continue' statement in a `for' loop directs `awk' to skip the rest of the body of the loop and resume execution with the increment-expression of the `for' statement. The following program illustrates this fact: BEGIN { for (x = 0; x <= 20; x++) { if (x == 5) continue printf "%d ", x } print "" } This program prints all the numbers from 0 to 20--except for 5, for which the `printf' is skipped. Because the increment `x++' is not skipped, `x' does not remain stuck at 5. Contrast the `for' loop from the previous example with the following `while' loop: BEGIN { x = 0 while (x <= 20) { if (x == 5) continue printf "%d ", x x++ } print "" } This program loops forever once `x' reaches 5. The `continue' statement has no special meaning with respect to the `switch' statement, nor does it any meaning when used outside the body of a loop. Historical versions of `awk' treated a `continue' statement outside a loop the same way they treated a `break' statement outside a loop: as if it were a `next' statement (*note Next Statement::). (d.c.) Recent versions of Brian Kernighan's `awk' no longer work this way, nor does `gawk'. File: gawk.info, Node: Next Statement, Next: Nextfile Statement, Prev: Continue Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.8 The `next' Statement -------------------------- The `next' statement forces `awk' to immediately stop processing the current record and go on to the next record. This means that no further rules are executed for the current record, and the rest of the current rule's action isn't executed. Contrast this with the effect of the `getline' function (*note Getline::). That also causes `awk' to read the next record immediately, but it does not alter the flow of control in any way (i.e., the rest of the current action executes with a new input record). At the highest level, `awk' program execution is a loop that reads an input record and then tests each rule's pattern against it. If you think of this loop as a `for' statement whose body contains the rules, then the `next' statement is analogous to a `continue' statement. It skips to the end of the body of this implicit loop and executes the increment (which reads another record). For example, suppose an `awk' program works only on records with four fields, and it shouldn't fail when given bad input. To avoid complicating the rest of the program, write a "weed out" rule near the beginning, in the following manner: NF != 4 { err = sprintf("%s:%d: skipped: NF != 4\n", FILENAME, FNR) print err > "/dev/stderr" next } Because of the `next' statement, the program's subsequent rules won't see the bad record. The error message is redirected to the standard error output stream, as error messages should be. For more detail see *note Special Files::. If the `next' statement causes the end of the input to be reached, then the code in any `END' rules is executed. *Note BEGIN/END::. The `next' statement is not allowed inside `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE' rules. *Note BEGINFILE/ENDFILE::. According to the POSIX standard, the behavior is undefined if the `next' statement is used in a `BEGIN' or `END' rule. `gawk' treats it as a syntax error. Although POSIX permits it, some other `awk' implementations don't allow the `next' statement inside function bodies (*note User-defined::). Just as with any other `next' statement, a `next' statement inside a function body reads the next record and starts processing it with the first rule in the program. File: gawk.info, Node: Nextfile Statement, Next: Exit Statement, Prev: Next Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.9 Using `gawk''s `nextfile' Statement ----------------------------------------- `gawk' provides the `nextfile' statement, which is similar to the `next' statement. (c.e.) However, instead of abandoning processing of the current record, the `nextfile' statement instructs `gawk' to stop processing the current data file. The `nextfile' statement is a `gawk' extension. In most other `awk' implementations, or if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), `nextfile' is not special. Upon execution of the `nextfile' statement, any `ENDFILE' rules are executed, `FILENAME' is updated to the name of the next data file listed on the command line, `FNR' is reset to one, `ARGIND' is incremented, any `BEGINFILE' rules are executed, and processing starts over with the first rule in the program. (`ARGIND' hasn't been introduced yet. *Note Built-in Variables::.) If the `nextfile' statement causes the end of the input to be reached, then the code in any `END' rules is executed. *Note BEGIN/END::. The `nextfile' statement is useful when there are many data files to process but it isn't necessary to process every record in every file. Normally, in order to move on to the next data file, a program has to continue scanning the unwanted records. The `nextfile' statement accomplishes this much more efficiently. In addition, `nextfile' is useful inside a `BEGINFILE' rule to skip over a file that would otherwise cause `gawk' to exit with a fatal error. *Note BEGINFILE/ENDFILE::. While one might think that `close(FILENAME)' would accomplish the same as `nextfile', this isn't true. `close()' is reserved for closing files, pipes, and coprocesses that are opened with redirections. It is not related to the main processing that `awk' does with the files listed in `ARGV'. The current version of the Brian Kernighan's `awk' (*note Other Versions::) also supports `nextfile'. However, it doesn't allow the `nextfile' statement inside function bodies (*note User-defined::). `gawk' does; a `nextfile' inside a function body reads the next record and starts processing it with the first rule in the program, just as any other `nextfile' statement. File: gawk.info, Node: Exit Statement, Prev: Nextfile Statement, Up: Statements 7.4.10 The `exit' Statement --------------------------- The `exit' statement causes `awk' to immediately stop executing the current rule and to stop processing input; any remaining input is ignored. The `exit' statement is written as follows: exit [RETURN CODE] When an `exit' statement is executed from a `BEGIN' rule, the program stops processing everything immediately. No input records are read. However, if an `END' rule is present, as part of executing the `exit' statement, the `END' rule is executed (*note BEGIN/END::). If `exit' is used in the body of an `END' rule, it causes the program to stop immediately. An `exit' statement that is not part of a `BEGIN' or `END' rule stops the execution of any further automatic rules for the current record, skips reading any remaining input records, and executes the `END' rule if there is one. Any `ENDFILE' rules are also skipped; they are not executed. In such a case, if you don't want the `END' rule to do its job, set a variable to nonzero before the `exit' statement and check that variable in the `END' rule. *Note Assert Function::, for an example that does this. If an argument is supplied to `exit', its value is used as the exit status code for the `awk' process. If no argument is supplied, `exit' causes `awk' to return a "success" status. In the case where an argument is supplied to a first `exit' statement, and then `exit' is called a second time from an `END' rule with no argument, `awk' uses the previously supplied exit value. (d.c.) *Note Exit Status::, for more information. For example, suppose an error condition occurs that is difficult or impossible to handle. Conventionally, programs report this by exiting with a nonzero status. An `awk' program can do this using an `exit' statement with a nonzero argument, as shown in the following example: BEGIN { if (("date" | getline date_now) <= 0) { print "Can't get system date" > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } print "current date is", date_now close("date") } NOTE: For full portability, exit values should be between zero and 126, inclusive. Negative values, and values of 127 or greater, may not produce consistent results across different operating systems. File: gawk.info, Node: Built-in Variables, Prev: Statements, Up: Patterns and Actions 7.5 Built-in Variables ====================== Most `awk' variables are available to use for your own purposes; they never change unless your program assigns values to them, and they never affect anything unless your program examines them. However, a few variables in `awk' have special built-in meanings. `awk' examines some of these automatically, so that they enable you to tell `awk' how to do certain things. Others are set automatically by `awk', so that they carry information from the internal workings of `awk' to your program. This minor node documents all the built-in variables of `gawk', most of which are also documented in the chapters describing their areas of activity. * Menu: * User-modified:: Built-in variables that you change to control `awk'. * Auto-set:: Built-in variables where `awk' gives you information. * ARGC and ARGV:: Ways to use `ARGC' and `ARGV'. File: gawk.info, Node: User-modified, Next: Auto-set, Up: Built-in Variables 7.5.1 Built-in Variables That Control `awk' ------------------------------------------- The following is an alphabetical list of variables that you can change to control how `awk' does certain things. The variables that are specific to `gawk' are marked with a pound sign (`#'). `BINMODE #' On non-POSIX systems, this variable specifies use of binary mode for all I/O. Numeric values of one, two, or three specify that input files, output files, or all files, respectively, should use binary I/O. A numeric value less than zero is treated as zero, and a numeric value greater than three is treated as three. Alternatively, string values of `"r"' or `"w"' specify that input files and output files, respectively, should use binary I/O. A string value of `"rw"' or `"wr"' indicates that all files should use binary I/O. Any other string value is treated the same as `"rw"', but causes `gawk' to generate a warning message. `BINMODE' is described in more detail in *note PC Using::. This variable is a `gawk' extension. In other `awk' implementations (except `mawk', *note Other Versions::), or if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), it is not special. `CONVFMT' This string controls conversion of numbers to strings (*note Conversion::). It works by being passed, in effect, as the first argument to the `sprintf()' function (*note String Functions::). Its default value is `"%.6g"'. `CONVFMT' was introduced by the POSIX standard. `FIELDWIDTHS #' This is a space-separated list of columns that tells `gawk' how to split input with fixed columnar boundaries. Assigning a value to `FIELDWIDTHS' overrides the use of `FS' and `FPAT' for field splitting. *Note Constant Size::, for more information. If `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), then `FIELDWIDTHS' has no special meaning, and field-splitting operations occur based exclusively on the value of `FS'. `FPAT #' This is a regular expression (as a string) that tells `gawk' to create the fields based on text that matches the regular expression. Assigning a value to `FPAT' overrides the use of `FS' and `FIELDWIDTHS' for field splitting. *Note Splitting By Content::, for more information. If `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), then `FPAT' has no special meaning, and field-splitting operations occur based exclusively on the value of `FS'. `FS' This is the input field separator (*note Field Separators::). The value is a single-character string or a multi-character regular expression that matches the separations between fields in an input record. If the value is the null string (`""'), then each character in the record becomes a separate field. (This behavior is a `gawk' extension. POSIX `awk' does not specify the behavior when `FS' is the null string. Nonetheless, some other versions of `awk' also treat `""' specially.) The default value is `" "', a string consisting of a single space. As a special exception, this value means that any sequence of spaces, TABs, and/or newlines is a single separator.(1) It also causes spaces, TABs, and newlines at the beginning and end of a record to be ignored. You can set the value of `FS' on the command line using the `-F' option: awk -F, 'PROGRAM' INPUT-FILES If `gawk' is using `FIELDWIDTHS' or `FPAT' for field splitting, assigning a value to `FS' causes `gawk' to return to the normal, `FS'-based field splitting. An easy way to do this is to simply say `FS = FS', perhaps with an explanatory comment. `IGNORECASE #' If `IGNORECASE' is nonzero or non-null, then all string comparisons and all regular expression matching are case independent. Thus, regexp matching with `~' and `!~', as well as the `gensub()', `gsub()', `index()', `match()', `patsplit()', `split()', and `sub()' functions, record termination with `RS', and field splitting with `FS' and `FPAT', all ignore case when doing their particular regexp operations. However, the value of `IGNORECASE' does _not_ affect array subscripting and it does not affect field splitting when using a single-character field separator. *Note Case-sensitivity::. If `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), then `IGNORECASE' has no special meaning. Thus, string and regexp operations are always case-sensitive. `LINT #' When this variable is true (nonzero or non-null), `gawk' behaves as if the `--lint' command-line option is in effect. (*note Options::). With a value of `"fatal"', lint warnings become fatal errors. With a value of `"invalid"', only warnings about things that are actually invalid are issued. (This is not fully implemented yet.) Any other true value prints nonfatal warnings. Assigning a false value to `LINT' turns off the lint warnings. This variable is a `gawk' extension. It is not special in other `awk' implementations. Unlike the other special variables, changing `LINT' does affect the production of lint warnings, even if `gawk' is in compatibility mode. Much as the `--lint' and `--traditional' options independently control different aspects of `gawk''s behavior, the control of lint warnings during program execution is independent of the flavor of `awk' being executed. `OFMT' This string controls conversion of numbers to strings (*note Conversion::) for printing with the `print' statement. It works by being passed as the first argument to the `sprintf()' function (*note String Functions::). Its default value is `"%.6g"'. Earlier versions of `awk' also used `OFMT' to specify the format for converting numbers to strings in general expressions; this is now done by `CONVFMT'. `OFS' This is the output field separator (*note Output Separators::). It is output between the fields printed by a `print' statement. Its default value is `" "', a string consisting of a single space. `ORS' This is the output record separator. It is output at the end of every `print' statement. Its default value is `"\n"', the newline character. (*Note Output Separators::.) `RS' This is `awk''s input record separator. Its default value is a string containing a single newline character, which means that an input record consists of a single line of text. It can also be the null string, in which case records are separated by runs of blank lines. If it is a regexp, records are separated by matches of the regexp in the input text. (*Note Records::.) The ability for `RS' to be a regular expression is a `gawk' extension. In most other `awk' implementations, or if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), just the first character of `RS''s value is used. `SUBSEP' This is the subscript separator. It has the default value of `"\034"' and is used to separate the parts of the indices of a multidimensional array. Thus, the expression `foo["A", "B"]' really accesses `foo["A\034B"]' (*note Multi-dimensional::). `TEXTDOMAIN #' This variable is used for internationalization of programs at the `awk' level. It sets the default text domain for specially marked string constants in the source text, as well as for the `dcgettext()', `dcngettext()' and `bindtextdomain()' functions (*note Internationalization::). The default value of `TEXTDOMAIN' is `"messages"'. This variable is a `gawk' extension. In other `awk' implementations, or if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), it is not special. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) In POSIX `awk', newline does not count as whitespace. File: gawk.info, Node: Auto-set, Next: ARGC and ARGV, Prev: User-modified, Up: Built-in Variables 7.5.2 Built-in Variables That Convey Information ------------------------------------------------ The following is an alphabetical list of variables that `awk' sets automatically on certain occasions in order to provide information to your program. The variables that are specific to `gawk' are marked with a pound sign (`#'). `ARGC, ARGV' The command-line arguments available to `awk' programs are stored in an array called `ARGV'. `ARGC' is the number of command-line arguments present. *Note Other Arguments::. Unlike most `awk' arrays, `ARGV' is indexed from 0 to `ARGC' - 1. In the following example: $ awk 'BEGIN { > for (i = 0; i < ARGC; i++) > print ARGV[i] > }' inventory-shipped BBS-list -| awk -| inventory-shipped -| BBS-list `ARGV[0]' contains `awk', `ARGV[1]' contains `inventory-shipped', and `ARGV[2]' contains `BBS-list'. The value of `ARGC' is three, one more than the index of the last element in `ARGV', because the elements are numbered from zero. The names `ARGC' and `ARGV', as well as the convention of indexing the array from 0 to `ARGC' - 1, are derived from the C language's method of accessing command-line arguments. The value of `ARGV[0]' can vary from system to system. Also, you should note that the program text is _not_ included in `ARGV', nor are any of `awk''s command-line options. *Note ARGC and ARGV::, for information about how `awk' uses these variables. (d.c.) `ARGIND #' The index in `ARGV' of the current file being processed. Every time `gawk' opens a new data file for processing, it sets `ARGIND' to the index in `ARGV' of the file name. When `gawk' is processing the input files, `FILENAME == ARGV[ARGIND]' is always true. This variable is useful in file processing; it allows you to tell how far along you are in the list of data files as well as to distinguish between successive instances of the same file name on the command line. While you can change the value of `ARGIND' within your `awk' program, `gawk' automatically sets it to a new value when the next file is opened. This variable is a `gawk' extension. In other `awk' implementations, or if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), it is not special. `ENVIRON' An associative array containing the values of the environment. The array indices are the environment variable names; the elements are the values of the particular environment variables. For example, `ENVIRON["HOME"]' might be `/home/arnold'. Changing this array does not affect the environment passed on to any programs that `awk' may spawn via redirection or the `system()' function. Some operating systems may not have environment variables. On such systems, the `ENVIRON' array is empty (except for `ENVIRON["AWKPATH"]', *note AWKPATH Variable::). `ERRNO #' If a system error occurs during a redirection for `getline', during a read for `getline', or during a `close()' operation, then `ERRNO' contains a string describing the error. In addition, `gawk' clears `ERRNO' before opening each command-line input file. This enables checking if the file is readable inside a `BEGINFILE' pattern (*note BEGINFILE/ENDFILE::). Otherwise, `ERRNO' works similarly to the C variable `errno'. Except for the case just mentioned, `gawk' _never_ clears it (sets it to zero or `""'). Thus, you should only expect its value to be meaningful when an I/O operation returns a failure value, such as `getline' returning -1. You are, of course, free to clear it yourself before doing an I/O operation. This variable is a `gawk' extension. In other `awk' implementations, or if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), it is not special. `FILENAME' The name of the file that `awk' is currently reading. When no data files are listed on the command line, `awk' reads from the standard input and `FILENAME' is set to `"-"'. `FILENAME' is changed each time a new file is read (*note Reading Files::). Inside a `BEGIN' rule, the value of `FILENAME' is `""', since there are no input files being processed yet.(1) (d.c.) Note, though, that using `getline' (*note Getline::) inside a `BEGIN' rule can give `FILENAME' a value. `FNR' The current record number in the current file. `FNR' is incremented each time a new record is read (*note Records::). It is reinitialized to zero each time a new input file is started. `NF' The number of fields in the current input record. `NF' is set each time a new record is read, when a new field is created or when `$0' changes (*note Fields::). Unlike most of the variables described in this node, assigning a value to `NF' has the potential to affect `awk''s internal workings. In particular, assignments to `NF' can be used to create or remove fields from the current record. *Note Changing Fields::. `NR' The number of input records `awk' has processed since the beginning of the program's execution (*note Records::). `NR' is incremented each time a new record is read. `PROCINFO #' The elements of this array provide access to information about the running `awk' program. The following elements (listed alphabetically) are guaranteed to be available: `PROCINFO["egid"]' The value of the `getegid()' system call. `PROCINFO["euid"]' The value of the `geteuid()' system call. `PROCINFO["FS"]' This is `"FS"' if field splitting with `FS' is in effect, `"FIELDWIDTHS"' if field splitting with `FIELDWIDTHS' is in effect, or `"FPAT"' if field matching with `FPAT' is in effect. `PROCINFO["gid"]' The value of the `getgid()' system call. `PROCINFO["pgrpid"]' The process group ID of the current process. `PROCINFO["pid"]' The process ID of the current process. `PROCINFO["ppid"]' The parent process ID of the current process. `PROCINFO["sorted_in"]' If this element exists in `PROCINFO', its value controls the order in which array indices will be processed by `for (index in array) ...' loops. The value should contain one to three words; separate pairs of words by a single space. One word controls sort direction, `ascending' or `descending'; another controls the sort key, `index' or `value'; and the remaining one affects comparison mode, `string' or `number'. When two or three words are present, they may be specified in any order, so `ascending index string' and `string ascending index' are equivalent. Also, each word may be truncated, so `asc index str' and `a i s' are also equivalent. Note that a separating space is required even when the words have been shortened down to one letter each. You can omit direction and/or key type and/or comparison mode. Provided that at least one is present, the missing parts of a sort specification default to `ascending', `index', and `string', respectively. An empty string, `""', is the same as `ascending index string', and a value of `unsorted' will cause `for (index in array) ...' to process the indices in arbitrary order. Another thing to note is that the array sorting takes place at the time the `for' loop is about to start executing, so changing the value of `PROCINFO["sorted_in"]' during loop execution does not have any effect on the order in which any remaining array elements get processed. *Note Scanning an Array::, for more information. `PROCINFO["strftime"]' The default time format string for `strftime()'. Assigning a new value to this element changes the default. *Note Time Functions::. `PROCINFO["uid"]' The value of the `getuid()' system call. `PROCINFO["version"]' The version of `gawk'. On some systems, there may be elements in the array, `"group1"' through `"groupN"' for some N. N is the number of supplementary groups that the process has. Use the `in' operator to test for these elements (*note Reference to Elements::). The `PROCINFO' array is also used to cause coprocesses to communicate over pseudo-ttys instead of through two-way pipes; this is discussed further in *note Two-way I/O::. This array is a `gawk' extension. In other `awk' implementations, or if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), it is not special. `RLENGTH' The length of the substring matched by the `match()' function (*note String Functions::). `RLENGTH' is set by invoking the `match()' function. Its value is the length of the matched string, or -1 if no match is found. `RSTART' The start-index in characters of the substring that is matched by the `match()' function (*note String Functions::). `RSTART' is set by invoking the `match()' function. Its value is the position of the string where the matched substring starts, or zero if no match was found. `RT #' This is set each time a record is read. It contains the input text that matched the text denoted by `RS', the record separator. This variable is a `gawk' extension. In other `awk' implementations, or if `gawk' is in compatibility mode (*note Options::), it is not special. Advanced Notes: Changing `NR' and `FNR' --------------------------------------- `awk' increments `NR' and `FNR' each time it reads a record, instead of setting them to the absolute value of the number of records read. This means that a program can change these variables and their new values are incremented for each record. (d.c.) The following example shows this: $ echo '1 > 2 > 3 > 4' | awk 'NR == 2 { NR = 17 } > { print NR }' -| 1 -| 17 -| 18 -| 19 Before `FNR' was added to the `awk' language (*note V7/SVR3.1::), many `awk' programs used this feature to track the number of records in a file by resetting `NR' to zero when `FILENAME' changed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Some early implementations of Unix `awk' initialized `FILENAME' to `"-"', even if there were data files to be processed. This behavior was incorrect and should not be relied upon in your programs. File: gawk.info, Node: ARGC and ARGV, Prev: Auto-set, Up: Built-in Variables 7.5.3 Using `ARGC' and `ARGV' ----------------------------- *note Auto-set::, presented the following program describing the information contained in `ARGC' and `ARGV': $ awk 'BEGIN { > for (i = 0; i < ARGC; i++) > print ARGV[i] > }' inventory-shipped BBS-list -| awk -| inventory-shipped -| BBS-list In this example, `ARGV[0]' contains `awk', `ARGV[1]' contains `inventory-shipped', and `ARGV[2]' contains `BBS-list'. Notice that the `awk' program is not entered in `ARGV'. The other command-line options, with their arguments, are also not entered. This includes variable assignments done with the `-v' option (*note Options::). Normal variable assignments on the command line _are_ treated as arguments and do show up in the `ARGV' array. Given the following program in a file named `showargs.awk': BEGIN { printf "A=%d, B=%d\n", A, B for (i = 0; i < ARGC; i++) printf "\tARGV[%d] = %s\n", i, ARGV[i] } END { printf "A=%d, B=%d\n", A, B } Running it produces the following: $ awk -v A=1 -f showargs.awk B=2 /dev/null -| A=1, B=0 -| ARGV[0] = awk -| ARGV[1] = B=2 -| ARGV[2] = /dev/null -| A=1, B=2 A program can alter `ARGC' and the elements of `ARGV'. Each time `awk' reaches the end of an input file, it uses the next element of `ARGV' as the name of the next input file. By storing a different string there, a program can change which files are read. Use `"-"' to represent the standard input. Storing additional elements and incrementing `ARGC' causes additional files to be read. If the value of `ARGC' is decreased, that eliminates input files from the end of the list. By recording the old value of `ARGC' elsewhere, a program can treat the eliminated arguments as something other than file names. To eliminate a file from the middle of the list, store the null string (`""') into `ARGV' in place of the file's name. As a special feature, `awk' ignores file names that have been replaced with the null string. Another option is to use the `delete' statement to remove elements from `ARGV' (*note Delete::). All of these actions are typically done in the `BEGIN' rule, before actual processing of the input begins. *Note Split Program::, and see *note Tee Program::, for examples of each way of removing elements from `ARGV'. The following fragment processes `ARGV' in order to examine, and then remove, command-line options: BEGIN { for (i = 1; i < ARGC; i++) { if (ARGV[i] == "-v") verbose = 1 else if (ARGV[i] == "-d") debug = 1 else if (ARGV[i] ~ /^-./) { e = sprintf("%s: unrecognized option -- %c", ARGV[0], substr(ARGV[i], 2, 1)) print e > "/dev/stderr" } else break delete ARGV[i] } } To actually get the options into the `awk' program, end the `awk' options with `--' and then supply the `awk' program's options, in the following manner: awk -f myprog -- -v -d file1 file2 ... This is not necessary in `gawk'. Unless `--posix' has been specified, `gawk' silently puts any unrecognized options into `ARGV' for the `awk' program to deal with. As soon as it sees an unknown option, `gawk' stops looking for other options that it might otherwise recognize. The previous example with `gawk' would be: gawk -f myprog -d -v file1 file2 ... Because `-d' is not a valid `gawk' option, it and the following `-v' are passed on to the `awk' program. (*Note Getopt Function::, for an `awk' library function that parses command-line options.) File: gawk.info, Node: Arrays, Next: Functions, Prev: Patterns and Actions, Up: Top 8 Arrays in `awk' ***************** An "array" is a table of values called "elements". The elements of an array are distinguished by their "indices". Indices may be either numbers or strings. This major node describes how arrays work in `awk', how to use array elements, how to scan through every element in an array, and how to remove array elements. It also describes how `awk' simulates multidimensional arrays, as well as some of the less obvious points about array usage. The major node moves on to discuss `gawk''s facility for sorting arrays, and ends with a brief description of `gawk''s ability to support true multidimensional arrays. `awk' maintains a single set of names that may be used for naming variables, arrays, and functions (*note User-defined::). Thus, you cannot have a variable and an array with the same name in the same `awk' program. * Menu: * Array Basics:: The basics of arrays. * Delete:: The `delete' statement removes an element from an array. * Numeric Array Subscripts:: How to use numbers as subscripts in `awk'. * Uninitialized Subscripts:: Using Uninitialized variables as subscripts. * Multi-dimensional:: Emulating multidimensional arrays in `awk'. * Arrays of Arrays:: True multidimensional arrays. File: gawk.info, Node: Array Basics, Next: Delete, Up: Arrays 8.1 The Basics of Arrays ======================== This minor node presents the basics: working with elements in arrays one at a time, and traversing all of the elements in an array. * Menu: * Array Intro:: Introduction to Arrays * Reference to Elements:: How to examine one element of an array. * Assigning Elements:: How to change an element of an array. * Array Example:: Basic Example of an Array * Scanning an Array:: A variation of the `for' statement. It loops through the indices of an array's existing elements. File: gawk.info, Node: Array Intro, Next: Reference to Elements, Up: Array Basics 8.1.1 Introduction to Arrays ---------------------------- Doing linear scans over an associative array is like trying to club someone to death with a loaded Uzi. Larry Wall The `awk' language provides one-dimensional arrays for storing groups of related strings or numbers. Every `awk' array must have a name. Array names have the same syntax as variable names; any valid variable name would also be a valid array name. But one name cannot be used in both ways (as an array and as a variable) in the same `awk' program. Arrays in `awk' superficially resemble arrays in other programming languages, but there are fundamental differences. In `awk', it isn't necessary to specify the size of an array before starting to use it. Additionally, any number or string in `awk', not just consecutive integers, may be used as an array index. In most other languages, arrays must be "declared" before use, including a specification of how many elements or components they contain. In such languages, the declaration causes a contiguous block of memory to be allocated for that many elements. Usually, an index in the array must be a positive integer. For example, the index zero specifies the first element in the array, which is actually stored at the beginning of the block of memory. Index one specifies the second element, which is stored in memory right after the first element, and so on. It is impossible to add more elements to the array, because it has room only for as many elements as given in the declaration. (Some languages allow arbitrary starting and ending indices--e.g., `15 .. 27'--but the size of the array is still fixed when the array is declared.) A contiguous array of four elements might look like the following example, conceptually, if the element values are 8, `"foo"', `""', and 30: +---------+---------+--------+---------+ | 8 | "foo" | "" | 30 | Value +---------+---------+--------+---------+ 0 1 2 3 Index Only the values are stored; the indices are implicit from the order of the values. Here, 8 is the value at index zero, because 8 appears in the position with zero elements before it. Arrays in `awk' are different--they are "associative". This means that each array is a collection of pairs: an index and its corresponding array element value: Index 3 Value 30 Index 1 Value "foo" Index 0 Value 8 Index 2 Value "" The pairs are shown in jumbled order because their order is irrelevant. One advantage of associative arrays is that new pairs can be added at any time. For example, suppose a tenth element is added to the array whose value is `"number ten"'. The result is: Index 10 Value "number ten" Index 3 Value 30 Index 1 Value "foo" Index 0 Value 8 Index 2 Value "" Now the array is "sparse", which just means some indices are missing. It has elements 0-3 and 10, but doesn't have elements 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. Another consequence of associative arrays is that the indices don't have to be positive integers. Any number, or even a string, can be an index. For example, the following is an array that translates words from English to French: Index "dog" Value "chien" Index "cat" Value "chat" Index "one" Value "un" Index 1 Value "un" Here we decided to translate the number one in both spelled-out and numeric form--thus illustrating that a single array can have both numbers and strings as indices. In fact, array subscripts are always strings; this is discussed in more detail in *note Numeric Array Subscripts::. Here, the number `1' isn't double-quoted, since `awk' automatically converts it to a string. The value of `IGNORECASE' has no effect upon array subscripting. The identical string value used to store an array element must be used to retrieve it. When `awk' creates an array (e.g., with the `split()' built-in function), that array's indices are consecutive integers starting at one. (*Note String Functions::.) `awk''s arrays are efficient--the time to access an element is independent of the number of elements in the array. File: gawk.info, Node: Reference to Elements, Next: Assigning Elements, Prev: Array Intro, Up: Array Basics 8.1.2 Referring to an Array Element ----------------------------------- The principal way to use an array is to refer to one of its elements. An array reference is an expression as follows: ARRAY[INDEX-EXPRESSION] Here, ARRAY is the name of an array. The expression INDEX-EXPRESSION is the index of the desired element of the array. The value of the array reference is the current value of that array element. For example, `foo[4.3]' is an expression for the element of array `foo' at index `4.3'. A reference to an array element that has no recorded value yields a value of `""', the null string. This includes elements that have not been assigned any value as well as elements that have been deleted (*note Delete::). NOTE: A reference to an element that does not exist _automatically_ creates that array element, with the null string as its value. (In some cases, this is unfortunate, because it might waste memory inside `awk'.) Novice `awk' programmers often make the mistake of checking if an element exists by checking if the value is empty: # Check if "foo" exists in a: Incorrect! if (a["foo"] != "") ... This is incorrect, since this will _create_ `a["foo"]' if it didn't exist before! To determine whether an element exists in an array at a certain index, use the following expression: IND in ARRAY This expression tests whether the particular index IND exists, without the side effect of creating that element if it is not present. The expression has the value one (true) if `ARRAY[IND]' exists and zero (false) if it does not exist. For example, this statement tests whether the array `frequencies' contains the index `2': if (2 in frequencies) print "Subscript 2 is present." Note that this is _not_ a test of whether the array `frequencies' contains an element whose _value_ is two. There is no way to do that except to scan all the elements. Also, this _does not_ create `frequencies[2]', while the following (incorrect) alternative does: if (frequencies[2] != "") print "Subscript 2 is present." File: gawk.info, Node: Assigning Elements, Next: Array Example, Prev: Reference to Elements, Up: Array Basics 8.1.3 Assigning Array Elements ------------------------------ Array elements can be assigned values just like `awk' variables: ARRAY[INDEX-EXPRESSION] = VALUE ARRAY is the name of an array. The expression INDEX-EXPRESSION is the index of the element of the array that is assigned a value. The expression VALUE is the value to assign to that element of the array. File: gawk.info, Node: Array Example, Next: Scanning an Array, Prev: Assigning Elements, Up: Array Basics 8.1.4 Basic Array Example ------------------------- The following program takes a list of lines, each beginning with a line number, and prints them out in order of line number. The line numbers are not in order when they are first read--instead they are scrambled. This program sorts the lines by making an array using the line numbers as subscripts. The program then prints out the lines in sorted order of their numbers. It is a very simple program and gets confused upon encountering repeated numbers, gaps, or lines that don't begin with a number: { if ($1 > max) max = $1 arr[$1] = $0 } END { for (x = 1; x <= max; x++) print arr[x] } The first rule keeps track of the largest line number seen so far; it also stores each line into the array `arr', at an index that is the line's number. The second rule runs after all the input has been read, to print out all the lines. When this program is run with the following input: 5 I am the Five man 2 Who are you? The new number two! 4 . . . And four on the floor 1 Who is number one? 3 I three you. Its output is: 1 Who is number one? 2 Who are you? The new number two! 3 I three you. 4 . . . And four on the floor 5 I am the Five man If a line number is repeated, the last line with a given number overrides the others. Gaps in the line numbers can be handled with an easy improvement to the program's `END' rule, as follows: END { for (x = 1; x <= max; x++) if (x in arr) print arr[x] } File: gawk.info, Node: Scanning an Array, Prev: Array Example, Up: Array Basics 8.1.5 Scanning All Elements of an Array --------------------------------------- In programs that use arrays, it is often necessary to use a loop that executes once for each element of an array. In other languages, where arrays are contiguous and indices are limited to positive integers, this is easy: all the valid indices can be found by counting from the lowest index up to the highest. This technique won't do the job in `awk', because any number or string can be an array index. So `awk' has a special kind of `for' statement for scanning an array: for (VAR in ARRAY) BODY This loop executes BODY once for each index in ARRAY that the program has previously used, with the variable VAR set to that index. The following program uses this form of the `for' statement. The first rule scans the input records and notes which words appear (at least once) in the input, by storing a one into the array `used' with the word as index. The second rule scans the elements of `used' to find all the distinct words that appear in the input. It prints each word that is more than 10 characters long and also prints the number of such words. *Note String Functions::, for more information on the built-in function `length()'. # Record a 1 for each word that is used at least once { for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) used[$i] = 1 } # Find number of distinct words more than 10 characters long END { for (x in used) { if (length(x) > 10) { ++num_long_words print x } } print num_long_words, "words longer than 10 characters" } *Note Word Sorting::, for a more detailed example of this type. The order in which elements of the array are accessed by this statement is determined by the internal arrangement of the array elements within `awk' and normally cannot be controlled or changed. This can lead to problems if new elements are added to ARRAY by statements in the loop body; it is not predictable whether the `for' loop will reach them. Similarly, changing VAR inside the loop may produce strange results. It is best to avoid such things. As an extension, `gawk' makes it possible for you to loop over the elements of an array in order, based on the value of `PROCINFO["sorted_in"]' (*note Auto-set::). This is an advanced feature, so discussion of it is delayed until *note Controlling Array Traversal::. In addition, `gawk' provides built-in functions for sorting arrays; see *note Array Sorting Functions::. File: gawk.info, Node: Delete, Next: Numeric Array Subscripts, Prev: Array Basics, Up: Arrays 8.2 The `delete' Statement ========================== To remove an individual element of an array, use the `delete' statement: delete ARRAY[INDEX-EXPRESSION] Once an array element has been deleted, any value the element once had is no longer available. It is as if the element had never been referred to or been given a value. The following is an example of deleting elements in an array: for (i in frequencies) delete frequencies[i] This example removes all the elements from the array `frequencies'. Once an element is deleted, a subsequent `for' statement to scan the array does not report that element and the `in' operator to check for the presence of that element returns zero (i.e., false): delete foo[4] if (4 in foo) print "This will never be printed" It is important to note that deleting an element is _not_ the same as assigning it a null value (the empty string, `""'). For example: foo[4] = "" if (4 in foo) print "This is printed, even though foo[4] is empty" It is not an error to delete an element that does not exist. However, if `--lint' is provided on the command line (*note Options::), `gawk' issues a warning message when an element that is not in the array is deleted. All the elements of an array may be deleted with a single statement (c.e.) by leaving off the subscript in the `delete' statement, as follows: delete ARRAY This ability is a `gawk' extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (*note Options::). Using this version of the `delete' statement is about three times more efficient than the equivalent loop that deletes each element one at a time. The following statement provides a portable but nonobvious way to clear out an array:(1) split("", array) The `split()' function (*note String Functions::) clears out the target array first. This call asks it to split apart the null string. Because there is no data to split out, the function simply clears the array and then returns. CAUTION: Deleting an array does not change its type; you cannot delete an array and then use the array's name as a scalar (i.e., a regular variable). For example, the following does not work: a[1] = 3 delete a a = 3 ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Thanks to Michael Brennan for pointing this out. File: gawk.info, Node: Numeric Array Subscripts, Next: Uninitialized Subscripts, Prev: Delete, Up: Arrays 8.3 Using Numbers to Subscript Arrays ===================================== An important aspect to remember about arrays is that _array subscripts are always strings_. When a numeric value is used as a subscript, it is converted to a string value before being used for subscripting (*note Conversion::). This means that the value of the built-in variable `CONVFMT' can affect how your program accesses elements of an array. For example: xyz = 12.153 data[xyz] = 1 CONVFMT = "%2.2f" if (xyz in data) printf "%s is in data\n", xyz else printf "%s is not in data\n", xyz This prints `12.15 is not in data'. The first statement gives `xyz' a numeric value. Assigning to `data[xyz]' subscripts `data' with the string value `"12.153"' (using the default conversion value of `CONVFMT', `"%.6g"'). Thus, the array element `data["12.153"]' is assigned the value one. The program then changes the value of `CONVFMT'. The test `(xyz in data)' generates a new string value from `xyz'--this time `"12.15"'--because the value of `CONVFMT' only allows two significant digits. This test fails, since `"12.15"' is different from `"12.153"'. According to the rules for conversions (*note Conversion::), integer values are always converted to strings as integers, no matter what the value of `CONVFMT' may happen to be. So the usual case of the following works: for (i = 1; i <= maxsub; i++) do something with array[i] The "integer values always convert to strings as integers" rule has an additional consequence for array indexing. Octal and hexadecimal constants (*note Nondecimal-numbers::) are converted internally into numbers, and their original form is forgotten. This means, for example, that `array[17]', `array[021]', and `array[0x11]' all refer to the same element! As with many things in `awk', the majority of the time things work as one would expect them to. But it is useful to have a precise knowledge of the actual rules since they can sometimes have a subtle effect on your programs. File: gawk.info, Node: Uninitialized Subscripts, Next: Multi-dimensional, Prev: Numeric Array Subscripts, Up: Arrays 8.4 Using Uninitialized Variables as Subscripts =============================================== Suppose it's necessary to write a program to print the input data in reverse order. A reasonable attempt to do so (with some test data) might look like this: $ echo 'line 1 > line 2 > line 3' | awk '{ l[lines] = $0; ++lines } > END { > for (i = lines-1; i >= 0; --i) > print l[i] > }' -| line 3 -| line 2 Unfortunately, the very first line of input data did not come out in the output! Upon first glance, we would think that this program should have worked. The variable `lines' is uninitialized, and uninitialized variables have the numeric value zero. So, `awk' should have printed the value of `l[0]'. The issue here is that subscripts for `awk' arrays are _always_ strings. Uninitialized variables, when used as strings, have the value `""', not zero. Thus, `line 1' ends up stored in `l[""]'. The following version of the program works correctly: { l[lines++] = $0 } END { for (i = lines - 1; i >= 0; --i) print l[i] } Here, the `++' forces `lines' to be numeric, thus making the "old value" numeric zero. This is then converted to `"0"' as the array subscript. Even though it is somewhat unusual, the null string (`""') is a valid array subscript. (d.c.) `gawk' warns about the use of the null string as a subscript if `--lint' is provided on the command line (*note Options::). File: gawk.info, Node: Multi-dimensional, Next: Arrays of Arrays, Prev: Uninitialized Subscripts, Up: Arrays 8.5 Multidimensional Arrays =========================== * Menu: * Multi-scanning:: Scanning multidimensional arrays. A multidimensional array is an array in which an element is identified by a sequence of indices instead of a single index. For example, a two-dimensional array requires two indices. The usual way (in most languages, including `awk') to refer to an element of a two-dimensional array named `grid' is with `grid[X,Y]'. Multidimensional arrays are supported in `awk' through concatenation of indices into one string. `awk' converts the indices into strings (*note Conversion::) and concatenates them together, with a separator between them. This creates a single string that describes the values of the separate indices. The combined string is used as a single index into an ordinary, one-dimensional array. The separator used is the value of the built-in variable `SUBSEP'. For example, suppose we evaluate the expression `foo[5,12] = "value"' when the value of `SUBSEP' is `"@"'. The numbers 5 and 12 are converted to strings and concatenated with an `@' between them, yielding `"5@12"'; thus, the array element `foo["5@12"]' is set to `"value"'. Once the element's value is stored, `awk' has no record of whether it was stored with a single index or a sequence of indices. The two expressions `foo[5,12]' and `foo[5 SUBSEP 12]' are always equivalent. The default value of `SUBSEP' is the string `"\034"', which contains a nonprinting character that is unlikely to appear in an `awk' program or in most input data. The usefulness of choosing an unlikely character comes from the fact that index values that contain a string matching `SUBSEP' can lead to combined strings that are ambiguous. Suppose that `SUBSEP' is `"@"'; then `foo["a@b", "c"]' and `foo["a", "b@c"]' are indistinguishable because both are actually stored as `foo["a@b@c"]'. To test whether a particular index sequence exists in a multidimensional array, use the same operator (`in') that is used for single dimensional arrays. Write the whole sequence of indices in parentheses, separated by commas, as the left operand: (SUBSCRIPT1, SUBSCRIPT2, ...) in ARRAY The following example treats its input as a two-dimensional array of fields; it rotates this array 90 degrees clockwise and prints the result. It assumes that all lines have the same number of elements: { if (max_nf < NF) max_nf = NF max_nr = NR for (x = 1; x <= NF; x++) vector[x, NR] = $x } END { for (x = 1; x <= max_nf; x++) { for (y = max_nr; y >= 1; --y) printf("%s ", vector[x, y]) printf("\n") } } When given the input: 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 4 5 6 1 2 4 5 6 1 2 3 the program produces the following output: 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 6 5 4 3 1 6 5 4 2 1 6 5 3 2 1 6 File: gawk.info, Node: Multi-scanning, Up: Multi-dimensional 8.5.1 Scanning Multidimensional Arrays -------------------------------------- There is no special `for' statement for scanning a "multidimensional" array. There cannot be one, because, in truth, there are no multidimensional arrays or elements--there is only a multidimensional _way of accessing_ an array. However, if your program has an array that is always accessed as multidimensional, you can get the effect of scanning it by combining the scanning `for' statement (*note Scanning an Array::) with the built-in `split()' function (*note String Functions::). It works in the following manner: for (combined in array) { split(combined, separate, SUBSEP) ... } This sets the variable `combined' to each concatenated combined index in the array, and splits it into the individual indices by breaking it apart where the value of `SUBSEP' appears. The individual indices then become the elements of the array `separate'. Thus, if a value is previously stored in `array[1, "foo"]'; then an element with index `"1\034foo"' exists in `array'. (Recall that the default value of `SUBSEP' is the character with code 034.) Sooner or later, the `for' statement finds that index and does an iteration with the variable `combined' set to `"1\034foo"'. Then the `split()' function is called as follows: split("1\034foo", separate, "\034") The result is to set `separate[1]' to `"1"' and `separate[2]' to `"foo"'. Presto! The original sequence of separate indices is recovered. File: gawk.info, Node: Arrays of Arrays, Prev: Multi-dimensional, Up: Arrays 8.6 Arrays of Arrays ==================== `gawk' supports arrays of arrays. Elements of a subarray are referred to by their own indices enclosed in square brackets, just like the elements of the main array. For example, the following creates a two-element subarray at index `1' of the main array `a': a[1][1] = 1 a[1][2] = 2 This simulates a true two-dimensional array. Each subarray element can contain another subarray as a value, which in turn can hold other arrays as well. In this way, you can create arrays of three or more dimensions. The indices can be any `awk' expression, including scalars separated by commas (that is, a regular `awk' simulated multidimensional subscript). So the following is valid in `gawk': a[1][3][1, "name"] = "barney" Each subarray and the main array can be of different length. In fact, the elements of an array or its subarray do not all have to have the same type. This means that the main array and any of its subarrays can be non-rectangular, or jagged in structure. One can assign a scalar value to the index `4' of the main array `a': a[4] = "An element in a jagged array" The terms "dimension", "row" and "column" are meaningless when applied to such an array, but we will use "dimension" henceforth to imply the maximum number of indices needed to refer to an existing element. The type of any element that has already been assigned cannot be changed by assigning a value of a different type. You have to first delete the current element, which effectively makes `gawk' forget about the element at that index: delete a[4] a[4][5][6][7] = "An element in a four-dimensional array" This removes the scalar value from index `4' and then inserts a subarray of subarray of subarray containing a scalar. You can also delete an entire subarray or subarray of subarrays: delete a[4][5] a[4][5] = "An element in subarray a[4]" But recall that you can not delete the main array `a' and then use it as a scalar. The built-in functions which take array arguments can also be used with subarrays. For example, the following code fragment uses `length()' (*note String Functions::) to determine the number of elements in the main array `a' and its subarrays: print length(a), length(a[1]), length(a[1][3]) This results in the following output for our main array `a': 2, 3, 1 The `SUBSCRIPT in ARRAY' expression (*note Reference to Elements::) works similarly for both regular `awk'-style arrays and arrays of arrays. For example, the tests `1 in a', `3 in a[1]', and `(1, "name") in a[1][3]' all evaluate to one (true) for our array `a'. The `for (item in array)' statement (*note Scanning an Array::) can be nested to scan all the elements of an array of arrays if it is rectangular in structure. In order to print the contents (scalar values) of a two-dimensional array of arrays (i.e., in which each first-level element is itself an array, not necessarily of the same length) you could use the following code: for (i in array) for (j in array[i]) print array[i][j] The `isarray()' function (*note Type Functions::) lets you test if an array element is itself an array: for (i in array) { if (isarray(array[i]) { for (j in array[i]) { print array[i][j] } } } If the structure of a jagged array of arrays is known in advance, you can often devise workarounds using control statements. For example, the following code prints the elements of our main array `a': for (i in a) { for (j in a[i]) { if (j == 3) { for (k in a[i][j]) print a[i][j][k] } else print a[i][j] } } *Note Walking Arrays::, for a user-defined function that will "walk" an arbitrarily-dimensioned array of arrays. Recall that a reference to an uninitialized array element yields a value of `""', the null string. This has one important implication when you intend to use a subarray as an argument to a function, as illustrated by the following example: $ gawk 'BEGIN { split("a b c d", b[1]); print b[1][1] }' error--> gawk: cmd. line:1: fatal: split: second argument is not an array The way to work around this is to first force `b[1]' to be an array by creating an arbitrary index: $ gawk 'BEGIN { b[1][1] = ""; split("a b c d", b[1]); print b[1][1] }' -| a File: gawk.info, Node: Functions, Next: Internationalization, Prev: Arrays, Up: Top 9 Functions *********** This major node describes `awk''s built-in functions, which fall into three categories: numeric, string, and I/O. `gawk' provides additional groups of functions to work with values that represent time, do bit manipulation, sort arrays, and internationalize and localize programs. Besides the built-in functions, `awk' has provisions for writing new functions that the rest of a program can use. The second half of this major node describes these "user-defined" functions. * Menu: * Built-in:: Summarizes the built-in functions. * User-defined:: Describes User-defined functions in detail. * Indirect Calls:: Choosing the function to call at runtime. File: gawk.info, Node: Built-in, Next: User-defined, Up: Functions 9.1 Built-in Functions ====================== "Built-in" functions are always available for your `awk' program to call. This minor node defines all the built-in functions in `awk'; some of these are mentioned in other sections but are summarized here for your convenience. * Menu: * Calling Built-in:: How to call built-in functions. * Numeric Functions:: Functions that work with numbers, including `int()', `sin()' and `rand()'. * String Functions:: Functions for string manipulation, such as `split()', `match()' and `sprintf()'. * I/O Functions:: Functions for files and shell commands. * Time Functions:: Functions for dealing with timestamps. * Bitwise Functions:: Functions for bitwise operations. * Type Functions:: Functions for type information. * I18N Functions:: Functions for string translation. File: gawk.info, Node: Calling Built-in, Next: Numeric Functions, Up: Built-in 9.1.1 Calling Built-in Functions -------------------------------- To call one of `awk''s built-in functions, write the name of the function followed by arguments in parentheses. For example, `atan2(y + z, 1)' is a call to the function `atan2()' and has two arguments. Whitespace is ignored between the built-in function name and the open parenthesis, but nonetheless it is good practice to avoid using whitespace there. User-defined functions do not permit whitespace in this way, and it is easier to avoid mistakes by following a simple convention that always works--no whitespace after a function name. Each built-in function accepts a certain number of arguments. In some cases, arguments can be omitted. The defaults for omitted arguments vary from function to function and are described under the individual functions. In some `awk' implementations, extra arguments given to built-in functions are ignored. However, in `gawk', it is a fatal error to give extra arguments to a built-in function. When a function is called, expressions that create the function's actual parameters are evaluated completely before the call is performed. For example, in the following code fragment: i = 4 j = sqrt(i++) the variable `i' is incremented to the value five before `sqrt()' is called with a value of four for its actual parameter. The order of evaluation of the expressions used for the function's parameters is undefined. Thus, avoid writing programs that assume that parameters are evaluated from left to right or from right to left. For example: i = 5 j = atan2(i++, i *= 2) If the order of evaluation is left to right, then `i' first becomes 6, and then 12, and `atan2()' is called with the two arguments 6 and 12. But if the order of evaluation is right to left, `i' first becomes 10, then 11, and `atan2()' is called with the two arguments 11 and 10. File: gawk.info, Node: Numeric Functions, Next: String Functions, Prev: Calling Built-in, Up: Built-in 9.1.2 Numeric Functions ----------------------- The following list describes all of the built-in functions that work with numbers. Optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]): `atan2(Y, X)' Return the arctangent of `Y / X' in radians. `cos(X)' Return the cosine of X, with X in radians. `exp(X)' Return the exponential of X (`e ^ X') or report an error if X is out of range. The range of values X can have depends on your machine's floating-point representation. `int(X)' Return the nearest integer to X, located between X and zero and truncated toward zero. For example, `int(3)' is 3, `int(3.9)' is 3, `int(-3.9)' is -3, and `int(-3)' is -3 as well. `log(X)' Return the natural logarithm of X, if X is positive; otherwise, report an error. `rand()' Return a random number. The values of `rand()' are uniformly distributed between zero and one. The value could be zero but is never one.(1) Often random integers are needed instead. Following is a user-defined function that can be used to obtain a random non-negative integer less than N: function randint(n) { return int(n * rand()) } The multiplication produces a random number greater than zero and less than `n'. Using `int()', this result is made into an integer between zero and `n' - 1, inclusive. The following example uses a similar function to produce random integers between one and N. This program prints a new random number for each input record: # Function to roll a simulated die. function roll(n) { return 1 + int(rand() * n) } # Roll 3 six-sided dice and # print total number of points. { printf("%d points\n", roll(6)+roll(6)+roll(6)) } CAUTION: In most `awk' implementations, including `gawk', `rand()' starts generating numbers from the same starting number, or "seed", each time you run `awk'.(2) Thus, a program generates the same results each time you run it. The numbers are random within one `awk' run but predictable from run to run. This is convenient for debugging, but if you want a program to do different things each time it is used, you must change the seed to a value that is different in each run. To do this, use `srand()'. `sin(X)' Return the sine of X, with X in radians. `sqrt(X)' Return the positive square root of X. `gawk' prints a warning message if X is negative. Thus, `sqrt(4)' is 2. `srand([X])' Set the starting point, or seed, for generating random numbers to the value X. Each seed value leads to a particular sequence of random numbers.(3) Thus, if the seed is set to the same value a second time, the same sequence of random numbers is produced again. CAUTION: Different `awk' implementations use different random-number generators internally. Don't expect the same `awk' program to produce the same series of random numbers when executed by different versions of `awk'. If the argument X is omitted, as in `srand()', then the current date and time of day are used for a seed. This is the way to get random numbers that are truly unpredictable. The return value of `srand()' is the previous seed. This makes it easy to keep track of the seeds in case you need to consistently reproduce sequences of random numbers. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The C version of `rand()' on many Unix systems is known to produce fairly poor sequences of random numbers. However, nothing requires that an `awk' implementation use the C `rand()' to implement the `awk' version of `rand()'. In fact, `gawk' uses the BSD `random()' function, which is considerably better than `rand()', to produce random numbers. (2) `mawk' uses a different seed each time. (3) Computer-generated random numbers really are not truly random. They are technically known as "pseudorandom." This means that while the numbers in a sequence appear to be random, you can in fact generate the same sequence of random numbers over and over again. File: gawk.info, Node: String Functions, Next: I/O Functions, Prev: Numeric Functions, Up: Built-in 9.1.3 String-Manipulation Functions ----------------------------------- The functions in this minor node look at or change the text of one or more strings. `gawk' understands locales (*note Locales::), and does all string processing in terms of _characters_, not _bytes_. This distinction is particularly important to understand for locales where one character may be represented by multiple bytes. Thus, for example, `length()' returns the number of characters in a string, and not the number of bytes used to represent those characters, Similarly, `index()' works with character indices, and not byte indices. In the following list, optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]). Several functions perform string substitution; the full discussion is provided in the description of the `sub()' function, which comes towards the end since the list is presented in alphabetic order. Those functions that are specific to `gawk' are marked with a pound sign (`#'): * Menu: * Gory Details:: More than you want to know about `\' and `&' with `sub()', `gsub()', and `gensub()'. `asort(SOURCE [, DEST [, HOW ] ]) #' Return the number of elements in the array SOURCE. `gawk' sorts the contents of SOURCE and replaces the indices of the sorted values of SOURCE with sequential integers starting with one. If the optional array DEST is specified, then SOURCE is duplicated into DEST. DEST is then sorted, leaving the indices of SOURCE unchanged. The optional third argument HOW is a string which controls the rule for comparing values, and the sort direction. A single space is required between the comparison mode, `string' or `number', and the direction specification, `ascending' or `descending'. You can omit direction and/or mode in which case it will default to `ascending' and `string', respectively. An empty string "" is the same as the default `"ascending string"' for the value of HOW. If the `source' array contains subarrays as values, they will come out last(first) in the `dest' array for `ascending'(`descending') order specification. The value of `IGNORECASE' affects the sorting. The third argument can also be a user-defined function name in which case the value returned by the function is used to order the array elements before constructing the result array. *Note Array Sorting Functions::, for more information. For example, if the contents of `a' are as follows: a["last"] = "de" a["first"] = "sac" a["middle"] = "cul" A call to `asort()': asort(a) results in the following contents of `a': a[1] = "cul" a[2] = "de" a[3] = "sac" In order to reverse the direction of the sorted results in the above example, `asort()' can be called with three arguments as follows: asort(a, a, "descending") The `asort()' function is described in more detail in *note Array Sorting Functions::. `asort()' is a `gawk' extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (*note Options::). `asorti(SOURCE [, DEST [, HOW ] ]) #' Return the number of elements in the array SOURCE. It works similarly to `asort()', however, the _indices_ are sorted, instead of the values. (Here too, `IGNORECASE' affects the sorting.) The `asorti()' function is described in more detail in *note Array Sorting Functions::. `asorti()' is a `gawk' extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (*note Options::). `gensub(REGEXP, REPLACEMENT, HOW [, TARGET]) #' Search the target string TARGET for matches of the regular expression REGEXP. If HOW is a string beginning with `g' or `G' (short for "global"), then replace all matches of REGEXP with REPLACEMENT. Otherwise, HOW is treated as a number indicating which match of REGEXP to replace. If no TARGET is supplied, use `$0'. It returns the modified string as the result of the function and the original target string is _not_ changed. `gensub()' is a general substitution function. It's purpose is to provide more features than the standard `sub()' and `gsub()' functions. `gensub()' provides an additional feature that is not available in `sub()' or `gsub()': the ability to specify components of a regexp in the replacement text. This is done by using parentheses in the regexp to mark the components and then specifying `\N' in the replacement text, where N is a digit from 1 to 9. For example: $ gawk ' > BEGIN { > a = "abc def" > b = gensub(/(.+) (.+)/, "\\2 \\1", "g", a) > print b > }' -| def abc As with `sub()', you must type two backslashes in order to get one into the string. In the replacement text, the sequence `\0' represents the entire matched text, as does the character `&'. The following example shows how you can use the third argument to control which match of the regexp should be changed: $ echo a b c a b c | > gawk '{ print gensub(/a/, "AA", 2) }' -| a b c AA b c In this case, `$0' is the default target string. `gensub()' returns the new string as its result, which is passed directly to `print' for printing. If the HOW argument is a string that does not begin with `g' or `G', or if it is a number that is less than or equal to zero, only one substitution is performed. If HOW is zero, `gawk' issues a warning message. If REGEXP does not match TARGET, `gensub()''s return value is the original unchanged value of TARGET. `gensub()' is a `gawk' extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (*note Options::). `gsub(REGEXP, REPLACEMENT [, TARGET])' Search TARGET for _all_ of the longest, leftmost, _nonoverlapping_ matching substrings it can find and replace them with REPLACEMENT. The `g' in `gsub()' stands for "global," which means replace everywhere. For example: { gsub(/Britain/, "United Kingdom"); print } replaces all occurrences of the string `Britain' with `United Kingdom' for all input records. The `gsub()' function returns the number of substitutions made. If the variable to search and alter (TARGET) is omitted, then the entire input record (`$0') is used. As in `sub()', the characters `&' and `\' are special, and the third argument must be assignable. `index(IN, FIND)' Search the string IN for the first occurrence of the string FIND, and return the position in characters where that occurrence begins in the string IN. Consider the following example: $ awk 'BEGIN { print index("peanut", "an") }' -| 3 If FIND is not found, `index()' returns zero. (Remember that string indices in `awk' start at one.) `length([STRING])' Return the number of characters in STRING. If STRING is a number, the length of the digit string representing that number is returned. For example, `length("abcde")' is five. By contrast, `length(15 * 35)' works out to three. In this example, 15 * 35 = 525, and 525 is then converted to the string `"525"', which has three characters. If no argument is supplied, `length()' returns the length of `$0'. NOTE: In older versions of `awk', the `length()' function could be called without any parentheses. Doing so is considered poor practice, although the 2008 POSIX standard explicitly allows it, to support historical practice. For programs to be maximally portable, always supply the parentheses. If `length()' is called with a variable that has not been used, `gawk' forces the variable to be a scalar. Other implementations of `awk' leave the variable without a type. (d.c.) Consider: $ gawk 'BEGIN { print length(x) ; x[1] = 1 }' -| 0 error--> gawk: fatal: attempt to use scalar `x' as array $ nawk 'BEGIN { print length(x) ; x[1] = 1 }' -| 0 If `--lint' has been specified on the command line, `gawk' issues a warning about this. With `gawk' and several other `awk' implementations, when given an array argument, the `length()' function returns the number of elements in the array. (c.e.) This is less useful than it might seem at first, as the array is not guaranteed to be indexed from one to the number of elements in it. If `--lint' is provided on the command line (*note Options::), `gawk' warns that passing an array argument is not portable. If `--posix' is supplied, using an array argument is a fatal error (*note Arrays::). `match(STRING, REGEXP [, ARRAY])' Search STRING for the longest, leftmost substring matched by the regular expression, REGEXP and return the character position, or "index", at which that substring begins (one, if it starts at the beginning of STRING). If no match is found, return zero. The REGEXP argument may be either a regexp constant (`/.../') or a string constant (`"..."'). In the latter case, the string is treated as a regexp to be matched. *Note Computed Regexps::, for a discussion of the difference between the two forms, and the implications for writing your program correctly. The order of the first two arguments is backwards from most other string functions that work with regular expressions, such as `sub()' and `gsub()'. It might help to remember that for `match()', the order is the same as for the `~' operator: `STRING ~ REGEXP'. The `match()' function sets the built-in variable `RSTART' to the index. It also sets the built-in variable `RLENGTH' to the length in characters of the matched substring. If no match is found, `RSTART' is set to zero, and `RLENGTH' to -1. For example: { if ($1 == "FIND") regex = $2 else { where = match($0, regex) if (where != 0) print "Match of", regex, "found at", where, "in", $0 } } This program looks for lines that match the regular expression stored in the variable `regex'. This regular expression can be changed. If the first word on a line is `FIND', `regex' is changed to be the second word on that line. Therefore, if given: FIND ru+n My program runs but not very quickly FIND Melvin JF+KM This line is property of Reality Engineering Co. Melvin was here. `awk' prints: Match of ru+n found at 12 in My program runs Match of Melvin found at 1 in Melvin was here. If ARRAY is present, it is cleared, and then the zeroth element of ARRAY is set to the entire portion of STRING matched by REGEXP. If REGEXP contains parentheses, the integer-indexed elements of ARRAY are set to contain the portion of STRING matching the corresponding parenthesized subexpression. For example: $ echo foooobazbarrrrr | > gawk '{ match($0, /(fo+).+(bar*)/, arr) > print arr[1], arr[2] }' -| foooo barrrrr In addition, multidimensional subscripts are available providing the start index and length of each matched subexpression: $ echo foooobazbarrrrr | > gawk '{ match($0, /(fo+).+(bar*)/, arr) > print arr[1], arr[2] > print arr[1, "start"], arr[1, "length"] > print arr[2, "start"], arr[2, "length"] > }' -| foooo barrrrr -| 1 5 -| 9 7 There may not be subscripts for the start and index for every parenthesized subexpression, since they may not all have matched text; thus they should be tested for with the `in' operator (*note Reference to Elements::). The ARRAY argument to `match()' is a `gawk' extension. In compatibility mode (*note Options::), using a third argument is a fatal error. `patsplit(STRING, ARRAY [, FIELDPAT [, SEPS ] ]) #' Divide STRING into pieces defined by FIELDPAT and store the pieces in ARRAY and the separator strings in the SEPS array. The first piece is stored in `ARRAY[1]', the second piece in `ARRAY[2]', and so forth. The third argument, FIELDPAT, is a regexp describing the fields in STRING (just as `FPAT' is a regexp describing the fields in input records). It may be either a regexp constant or a string. If FIELDPAT is omitted, the value of `FPAT' is used. `patsplit()' returns the number of elements created. `SEPS[I]' is the separator string between `ARRAY[I]' and `ARRAY[I+1]'. Any leading separator will be in `SEPS[0]'. The `patsplit()' function splits strings into pieces in a manner similar to the way input lines are split into fields using `FPAT' (*note Splitting By Content::. Before splitting the string, `patsplit()' deletes any previously existing elements in the arrays ARRAY and SEPS. The `patsplit()' function is a `gawk' extension. In compatibility mode (*note Options::), it is not available. `split(STRING, ARRAY [, FIELDSEP [, SEPS ] ])' Divide STRING into pieces separated by FIELDSEP and store the pieces in ARRAY and the separator strings in the SEPS array. The first piece is stored in `ARRAY[1]', the second piece in `ARRAY[2]', and so forth. The string value of the third argument, FIELDSEP, is a regexp describing where to split STRING (much as `FS' can be a regexp describing where to split input records; *note Regexp Field Splitting::). If FIELDSEP is omitted, the value of `FS' is used. `split()' returns the number of elements created. SEPS is a `gawk' extension with `SEPS[I]' being the separator string between `ARRAY[I]' and `ARRAY[I+1]'. If FIELDSEP is a single space then any leading whitespace goes into `SEPS[0]' and any trailing whitespace goes into `SEPS[N]' where N is the return value of `split()' (that is, the number of elements in ARRAY). The `split()' function splits strings into pieces in a manner similar to the way input lines are split into fields. For example: split("cul-de-sac", a, "-", seps) splits the string `cul-de-sac' into three fields using `-' as the separator. It sets the contents of the array `a' as follows: a[1] = "cul" a[2] = "de" a[3] = "sac" and sets the contents of the array `seps' as follows: seps[1] = "-" seps[2] = "-" The value returned by this call to `split()' is three. As with input field-splitting, when the value of FIELDSEP is `" "', leading and trailing whitespace is ignored in values assigned to the elements of ARRAY but not in SEPS, and the elements are separated by runs of whitespace. Also as with input field-splitting, if FIELDSEP is the null string, each individual character in the string is split into its own array element. (c.e.) Note, however, that `RS' has no effect on the way `split()' works. Even though `RS = ""' causes newline to also be an input field separator, this does not affect how `split()' splits strings. Modern implementations of `awk', including `gawk', allow the third argument to be a regexp constant (`/abc/') as well as a string. (d.c.) The POSIX standard allows this as well. *Note Computed Regexps::, for a discussion of the difference between using a string constant or a regexp constant, and the implications for writing your program correctly. Before splitting the string, `split()' deletes any previously existing elements in the arrays ARRAY and SEPS. If STRING is null, the array has no elements. (So this is a portable way to delete an entire array with one statement. *Note Delete::.) If STRING does not match FIELDSEP at all (but is not null), ARRAY has one element only. The value of that element is the original STRING. `sprintf(FORMAT, EXPRESSION1, ...)' Return (without printing) the string that `printf' would have printed out with the same arguments (*note Printf::). For example: pival = sprintf("pi = %.2f (approx.)", 22/7) assigns the string `pi = 3.14 (approx.)' to the variable `pival'. `strtonum(STR) #' Examine STR and return its numeric value. If STR begins with a leading `0', `strtonum()' assumes that STR is an octal number. If STR begins with a leading `0x' or `0X', `strtonum()' assumes that STR is a hexadecimal number. For example: $ echo 0x11 | > gawk '{ printf "%d\n", strtonum($1) }' -| 17 Using the `strtonum()' function is _not_ the same as adding zero to a string value; the automatic coercion of strings to numbers works only for decimal data, not for octal or hexadecimal.(1) Note also that `strtonum()' uses the current locale's decimal point for recognizing numbers (*note Locales::). `strtonum()' is a `gawk' extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (*note Options::). `sub(REGEXP, REPLACEMENT [, TARGET])' Search TARGET, which is treated as a string, for the leftmost, longest substring matched by the regular expression REGEXP. Modify the entire string by replacing the matched text with REPLACEMENT. The modified string becomes the new value of TARGET. Return the number of substitutions made (zero or one). The REGEXP argument may be either a regexp constant (`/.../') or a string constant (`"..."'). In the latter case, the string is treated as a regexp to be matched. *Note Computed Regexps::, for a discussion of the difference between the two forms, and the implications for writing your program correctly. This function is peculiar because TARGET is not simply used to compute a value, and not just any expression will do--it must be a variable, field, or array element so that `sub()' can store a modified value there. If this argument is omitted, then the default is to use and alter `$0'.(2) For example: str = "water, water, everywhere" sub(/at/, "ith", str) sets `str' to `wither, water, everywhere', by replacing the leftmost longest occurrence of `at' with `ith'. If the special character `&' appears in REPLACEMENT, it stands for the precise substring that was matched by REGEXP. (If the regexp can match more than one string, then this precise substring may vary.) For example: { sub(/candidate/, "& and his wife"); print } changes the first occurrence of `candidate' to `candidate and his wife' on each input line. Here is another example: $ awk 'BEGIN { > str = "daabaaa" > sub(/a+/, "C&C", str) > print str > }' -| dCaaCbaaa This shows how `&' can represent a nonconstant string and also illustrates the "leftmost, longest" rule in regexp matching (*note Leftmost Longest::). The effect of this special character (`&') can be turned off by putting a backslash before it in the string. As usual, to insert one backslash in the string, you must write two backslashes. Therefore, write `\\&' in a string constant to include a literal `&' in the replacement. For example, the following shows how to replace the first `|' on each line with an `&': { sub(/\|/, "\\&"); print } As mentioned, the third argument to `sub()' must be a variable, field or array element. Some versions of `awk' allow the third argument to be an expression that is not an lvalue. In such a case, `sub()' still searches for the pattern and returns zero or one, but the result of the substitution (if any) is thrown away because there is no place to put it. Such versions of `awk' accept expressions like the following: sub(/USA/, "United States", "the USA and Canada") For historical compatibility, `gawk' accepts such erroneous code. However, using any other nonchangeable object as the third parameter causes a fatal error and your program will not run. Finally, if the REGEXP is not a regexp constant, it is converted into a string, and then the value of that string is treated as the regexp to match. `substr(STRING, START [, LENGTH])' Return a LENGTH-character-long substring of STRING, starting at character number START. The first character of a string is character number one.(3) For example, `substr("washington", 5, 3)' returns `"ing"'. If LENGTH is not present, `substr()' returns the whole suffix of STRING that begins at character number START. For example, `substr("washington", 5)' returns `"ington"'. The whole suffix is also returned if LENGTH is greater than the number of characters remaining in the string, counting from character START. If START is less than one, `substr()' treats it as if it was one. (POSIX doesn't specify what to do in this case: Brian Kernighan's `awk' acts this way, and therefore `gawk' does too.) If START is greater than the number of characters in the string, `substr()' returns the null string. Similarly, if LENGTH is present but less than or equal to zero, the null string is returned. The string returned by `substr()' _cannot_ be assigned. Thus, it is a mistake to attempt to change a portion of a string, as shown in the following example: string = "abcdef" # try to get "abCDEf", won't work substr(string, 3, 3) = "CDE" It is also a mistake to use `substr()' as the third argument of `sub()' or `gsub()': gsub(/xyz/, "pdq", substr($0, 5, 20)) # WRONG (Some commercial versions of `awk' treat `substr()' as assignable, but doing so is not portable.) If you need to replace bits and pieces of a string, combine `substr()' with string concatenation, in the following manner: string = "abcdef" ... string = substr(string, 1, 2) "CDE" substr(string, 6) `tolower(STRING)' Return a copy of STRING, with each uppercase character in the string replaced with its corresponding lowercase character. Nonalphabetic characters are left unchanged. For example, `tolower("MiXeD cAsE 123")' returns `"mixed case 123"'. `toupper(STRING)' Return a copy of STRING, with each lowercase character in the string replaced with its corresponding uppercase character. Nonalphabetic characters are left unchanged. For example, `toupper("MiXeD cAsE 123")' returns `"MIXED CASE 123"'. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Unless you use the `--non-decimal-data' option, which isn't recommended. *Note Nondecimal Data::, for more information. (2) Note that this means that the record will first be regenerated using the value of `OFS' if any fields have been changed, and that the fields will be updated after the substitution, even if the operation is a "no-op" such as `sub(/^/, "")'. (3) This is different from C and C++, in which the first character is number zero. File: gawk.info, Node: Gory Details, Up: String Functions 9.1.3.1 More About `\' and `&' with `sub()', `gsub()', and `gensub()' ..................................................................... When using `sub()', `gsub()', or `gensub()', and trying to get literal backslashes and ampersands into the replacement text, you need to remember that there are several levels of "escape processing" going on. First, there is the "lexical" level, which is when `awk' reads your program and builds an internal copy of it that can be executed. Then there is the runtime level, which is when `awk' actually scans the replacement string to determine what to generate. At both levels, `awk' looks for a defined set of characters that can come after a backslash. At the lexical level, it looks for the escape sequences listed in *note Escape Sequences::. Thus, for every `\' that `awk' processes at the runtime level, you must type two backslashes at the lexical level. When a character that is not valid for an escape sequence follows the `\', Brian Kernighan's `awk' and `gawk' both simply remove the initial `\' and put the next character into the string. Thus, for example, `"a\qb"' is treated as `"aqb"'. At the runtime level, the various functions handle sequences of `\' and `&' differently. The situation is (sadly) somewhat complex. Historically, the `sub()' and `gsub()' functions treated the two character sequence `\&' specially; this sequence was replaced in the generated text with a single `&'. Any other `\' within the REPLACEMENT string that did not precede an `&' was passed through unchanged. This is illustrated in *note table-sub-escapes::. You type `sub()' sees `sub()' generates ------- --------- -------------- `\&' `&' the matched text `\\&' `\&' a literal `&' `\\\&' `\&' a literal `&' `\\\\&' `\\&' a literal `\&' `\\\\\&' `\\&' a literal `\&' `\\\\\\&' `\\\&' a literal `\\&' `\\q' `\q' a literal `\q' Table 9.1: Historical Escape Sequence Processing for `sub()' and `gsub()' This table shows both the lexical-level processing, where an odd number of backslashes becomes an even number at the runtime level, as well as the runtime processing done by `sub()'. (For the sake of simplicity, the rest of the following tables only show the case of even numbers of backslashes entered at the lexical level.) The problem with the historical approach is that there is no way to get a literal `\' followed by the matched text. The POSIX rules state that `\&' in the replacement string produces a literal `&', `\\' produces a literal `\', and `\' followed by anything else is not special; the `\' is placed straight into the output. These rules are presented in *note table-posix-sub::. You type `sub()' sees `sub()' generates ------- --------- -------------- `\\\\\\&' `\\\&' a literal `\&' `\\\\&' `\\&' a literal `\', followed by the matched text `\\&' `\&' a literal `&' `\\q' `\q' a literal `\q' `\\\\' `\\' `\' Table 9.2: POSIX rules for `sub()' and `gsub()' `gawk' follows the POSIX rules. The rules for `gensub()' are considerably simpler. At the runtime level, whenever `gawk' sees a `\', if the following character is a digit, then the text that matched the corresponding parenthesized subexpression is placed in the generated output. Otherwise, no matter what character follows the `\', it appears in the generated text and the `\' does not, as shown in *note table-gensub-escapes::. You type `gensub()' sees `gensub()' generates ------- ------------ ----------------- `&' `&' the matched text `\\&' `\&' a literal `&' `\\\\' `\\' a literal `\' `\\\\&' `\\&' a literal `\', then the matched text `\\\\\\&' `\\\&' a literal `\&' `\\q' `\q' a literal `q' Table 9.3: Escape Sequence Processing for `gensub()' Because of the complexity of the lexical and runtime level processing and the special cases for `sub()' and `gsub()', we recommend the use of `gawk' and `gensub()' when you have to do substitutions. Advanced Notes: Matching the Null String ---------------------------------------- In `awk', the `*' operator can match the null string. This is particularly important for the `sub()', `gsub()', and `gensub()' functions. For example: $ echo abc | awk '{ gsub(/m*/, "X"); print }' -| XaXbXcX Although this makes a certain amount of sense, it can be surprising. File: gawk.info, Node: I/O Functions, Next: Time Functions, Prev: String Functions, Up: Built-in 9.1.4 Input/Output Functions ---------------------------- The following functions relate to input/output (I/O). Optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]): `close(FILENAME [, HOW])' Close the file FILENAME for input or output. Alternatively, the argument may be a shell command that was used for creating a coprocess, or for redirecting to or from a pipe; then the coprocess or pipe is closed. *Note Close Files And Pipes::, for more information. When closing a coprocess, it is occasionally useful to first close one end of the two-way pipe and then to close the other. This is done by providing a second argument to `close()'. This second argument should be one of the two string values `"to"' or `"from"', indicating which end of the pipe to close. Case in the string does not matter. *Note Two-way I/O::, which discusses this feature in more detail and gives an example. `fflush([FILENAME])' Flush any buffered output associated with FILENAME, which is either a file opened for writing or a shell command for redirecting output to a pipe or coprocess. (c.e.). Many utility programs "buffer" their output; i.e., they save information to write to a disk file or the screen in memory until there is enough for it to be worthwhile to send the data to the output device. This is often more efficient than writing every little bit of information as soon as it is ready. However, sometimes it is necessary to force a program to "flush" its buffers; that is, write the information to its destination, even if a buffer is not full. This is the purpose of the `fflush()' function--`gawk' also buffers its output and the `fflush()' function forces `gawk' to flush its buffers. `fflush()' was added to Brian Kernighan's version of `awk' in 1994; it is not part of the POSIX standard and is not available if `--posix' has been specified on the command line (*note Options::). `gawk' extends the `fflush()' function in two ways. The first is to allow no argument at all. In this case, the buffer for the standard output is flushed. The second is to allow the null string (`""') as the argument. In this case, the buffers for _all_ open output files and pipes are flushed. Brian Kernighan's `awk' also supports these extensions. `fflush()' returns zero if the buffer is successfully flushed; otherwise, it returns -1. In the case where all buffers are flushed, the return value is zero only if all buffers were flushed successfully. Otherwise, it is -1, and `gawk' warns about the problem FILENAME. `gawk' also issues a warning message if you attempt to flush a file or pipe that was opened for reading (such as with `getline'), or if FILENAME is not an open file, pipe, or coprocess. In such a case, `fflush()' returns -1, as well. `system(COMMAND)' Execute the operating-system command COMMAND and then return to the `awk' program. Return COMMAND's exit status. For example, if the following fragment of code is put in your `awk' program: END { system("date | mail -s 'awk run done' root") } the system administrator is sent mail when the `awk' program finishes processing input and begins its end-of-input processing. Note that redirecting `print' or `printf' into a pipe is often enough to accomplish your task. If you need to run many commands, it is more efficient to simply print them down a pipeline to the shell: while (MORE STUFF TO DO) print COMMAND | "/bin/sh" close("/bin/sh") However, if your `awk' program is interactive, `system()' is useful for running large self-contained programs, such as a shell or an editor. Some operating systems cannot implement the `system()' function. `system()' causes a fatal error if it is not supported. NOTE: When `--sandbox' is specified, the `system()' function is disabled (*note Options::). Advanced Notes: Interactive Versus Noninteractive Buffering ----------------------------------------------------------- As a side point, buffering issues can be even more confusing, depending upon whether your program is "interactive", i.e., communicating with a user sitting at a keyboard.(1) Interactive programs generally "line buffer" their output; i.e., they write out every line. Noninteractive programs wait until they have a full buffer, which may be many lines of output. Here is an example of the difference: $ awk '{ print $1 + $2 }' 1 1 -| 2 2 3 -| 5 Ctrl-d Each line of output is printed immediately. Compare that behavior with this example: $ awk '{ print $1 + $2 }' | cat 1 1 2 3 Ctrl-d -| 2 -| 5 Here, no output is printed until after the `Ctrl-d' is typed, because it is all buffered and sent down the pipe to `cat' in one shot. Advanced Notes: Controlling Output Buffering with `system()' ------------------------------------------------------------ The `fflush()' function provides explicit control over output buffering for individual files and pipes. However, its use is not portable to many other `awk' implementations. An alternative method to flush output buffers is to call `system()' with a null string as its argument: system("") # flush output `gawk' treats this use of the `system()' function as a special case and is smart enough not to run a shell (or other command interpreter) with the empty command. Therefore, with `gawk', this idiom is not only useful, it is also efficient. While this method should work with other `awk' implementations, it does not necessarily avoid starting an unnecessary shell. (Other implementations may only flush the buffer associated with the standard output and not necessarily all buffered output.) If you think about what a programmer expects, it makes sense that `system()' should flush any pending output. The following program: BEGIN { print "first print" system("echo system echo") print "second print" } must print: first print system echo second print and not: system echo first print second print If `awk' did not flush its buffers before calling `system()', you would see the latter (undesirable) output. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) A program is interactive if the standard output is connected to a terminal device. On modern systems, this means your keyboard and screen. File: gawk.info, Node: Time Functions, Next: Bitwise Functions, Prev: I/O Functions, Up: Built-in 9.1.5 Time Functions -------------------- `awk' programs are commonly used to process log files containing timestamp information, indicating when a particular log record was written. Many programs log their timestamp in the form returned by the `time()' system call, which is the number of seconds since a particular epoch. On POSIX-compliant systems, it is the number of seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC, not counting leap seconds.(1) All known POSIX-compliant systems support timestamps from 0 through 2^31 - 1, which is sufficient to represent times through 2038-01-19 03:14:07 UTC. Many systems support a wider range of timestamps, including negative timestamps that represent times before the epoch. In order to make it easier to process such log files and to produce useful reports, `gawk' provides the following functions for working with timestamps. They are `gawk' extensions; they are not specified in the POSIX standard, nor are they in any other known version of `awk'.(2) Optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]): `mktime(DATESPEC)' Turn DATESPEC into a timestamp in the same form as is returned by `systime()'. It is similar to the function of the same name in ISO C. The argument, DATESPEC, is a string of the form `"YYYY MM DD HH MM SS [DST]"'. The string consists of six or seven numbers representing, respectively, the full year including century, the month from 1 to 12, the day of the month from 1 to 31, the hour of the day from 0 to 23, the minute from 0 to 59, the second from 0 to 60,(3) and an optional daylight-savings flag. The values of these numbers need not be within the ranges specified; for example, an hour of -1 means 1 hour before midnight. The origin-zero Gregorian calendar is assumed, with year 0 preceding year 1 and year -1 preceding year 0. The time is assumed to be in the local timezone. If the daylight-savings flag is positive, the time is assumed to be daylight savings time; if zero, the time is assumed to be standard time; and if negative (the default), `mktime()' attempts to determine whether daylight savings time is in effect for the specified time. If DATESPEC does not contain enough elements or if the resulting time is out of range, `mktime()' returns -1. `strftime([FORMAT [, TIMESTAMP [, UTC-FLAG]]])' Format the time specified by TIMESTAMP based on the contents of the FORMAT string and return the result. It is similar to the function of the same name in ISO C. If UTC-FLAG is present and is either nonzero or non-null, the value is formatted as UTC (Coordinated Universal Time, formerly GMT or Greenwich Mean Time). Otherwise, the value is formatted for the local time zone. The TIMESTAMP is in the same format as the value returned by the `systime()' function. If no TIMESTAMP argument is supplied, `gawk' uses the current time of day as the timestamp. If no FORMAT argument is supplied, `strftime()' uses the value of `PROCINFO["strftime"]' as the format string (*note Built-in Variables::). The default string value is `"%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Z %Y"'. This format string produces output that is equivalent to that of the `date' utility. You can assign a new value to `PROCINFO["strftime"]' to change the default format. `systime()' Return the current time as the number of seconds since the system epoch. On POSIX systems, this is the number of seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC, not counting leap seconds. It may be a different number on other systems. The `systime()' function allows you to compare a timestamp from a log file with the current time of day. In particular, it is easy to determine how long ago a particular record was logged. It also allows you to produce log records using the "seconds since the epoch" format. The `mktime()' function allows you to convert a textual representation of a date and time into a timestamp. This makes it easy to do before/after comparisons of dates and times, particularly when dealing with date and time data coming from an external source, such as a log file. The `strftime()' function allows you to easily turn a timestamp into human-readable information. It is similar in nature to the `sprintf()' function (*note String Functions::), in that it copies nonformat specification characters verbatim to the returned string, while substituting date and time values for format specifications in the FORMAT string. `strftime()' is guaranteed by the 1999 ISO C standard(4) to support the following date format specifications: `%a' The locale's abbreviated weekday name. `%A' The locale's full weekday name. `%b' The locale's abbreviated month name. `%B' The locale's full month name. `%c' The locale's "appropriate" date and time representation. (This is `%A %B %d %T %Y' in the `"C"' locale.) `%C' The century part of the current year. This is the year divided by 100 and truncated to the next lower integer. `%d' The day of the month as a decimal number (01-31). `%D' Equivalent to specifying `%m/%d/%y'. `%e' The day of the month, padded with a space if it is only one digit. `%F' Equivalent to specifying `%Y-%m-%d'. This is the ISO 8601 date format. `%g' The year modulo 100 of the ISO 8601 week number, as a decimal number (00-99). For example, January 1, 1993 is in week 53 of 1992. Thus, the year of its ISO 8601 week number is 1992, even though its year is 1993. Similarly, December 31, 1973 is in week 1 of 1974. Thus, the year of its ISO week number is 1974, even though its year is 1973. `%G' The full year of the ISO week number, as a decimal number. `%h' Equivalent to `%b'. `%H' The hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number (00-23). `%I' The hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number (01-12). `%j' The day of the year as a decimal number (001-366). `%m' The month as a decimal number (01-12). `%M' The minute as a decimal number (00-59). `%n' A newline character (ASCII LF). `%p' The locale's equivalent of the AM/PM designations associated with a 12-hour clock. `%r' The locale's 12-hour clock time. (This is `%I:%M:%S %p' in the `"C"' locale.) `%R' Equivalent to specifying `%H:%M'. `%S' The second as a decimal number (00-60). `%t' A TAB character. `%T' Equivalent to specifying `%H:%M:%S'. `%u' The weekday as a decimal number (1-7). Monday is day one. `%U' The week number of the year (the first Sunday as the first day of week one) as a decimal number (00-53). `%V' The week number of the year (the first Monday as the first day of week one) as a decimal number (01-53). The method for determining the week number is as specified by ISO 8601. (To wit: if the week containing January 1 has four or more days in the new year, then it is week one; otherwise it is week 53 of the previous year and the next week is week one.) `%w' The weekday as a decimal number (0-6). Sunday is day zero. `%W' The week number of the year (the first Monday as the first day of week one) as a decimal number (00-53). `%x' The locale's "appropriate" date representation. (This is `%A %B %d %Y' in the `"C"' locale.) `%X' The locale's "appropriate" time representation. (This is `%T' in the `"C"' locale.) `%y' The year modulo 100 as a decimal number (00-99). `%Y' The full year as a decimal number (e.g., 2011). `%z' The timezone offset in a +HHMM format (e.g., the format necessary to produce RFC 822/RFC 1036 date headers). `%Z' The time zone name or abbreviation; no characters if no time zone is determinable. `%Ec %EC %Ex %EX %Ey %EY %Od %Oe %OH' `%OI %Om %OM %OS %Ou %OU %OV %Ow %OW %Oy' "Alternate representations" for the specifications that use only the second letter (`%c', `%C', and so on).(5) (These facilitate compliance with the POSIX `date' utility.) `%%' A literal `%'. If a conversion specifier is not one of the above, the behavior is undefined.(6) Informally, a "locale" is the geographic place in which a program is meant to run. For example, a common way to abbreviate the date September 4, 2012 in the United States is "9/4/12." In many countries in Europe, however, it is abbreviated "4.9.12." Thus, the `%x' specification in a `"US"' locale might produce `9/4/12', while in a `"EUROPE"' locale, it might produce `4.9.12'. The ISO C standard defines a default `"C"' locale, which is an environment that is typical of what many C programmers are used to. For systems that are not yet fully standards-compliant, `gawk' supplies a copy of `strftime()' from the GNU C Library. It supports all of the just-listed format specifications. If that version is used to compile `gawk' (*note Installation::), then the following additional format specifications are available: `%k' The hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number (0-23). Single-digit numbers are padded with a space. `%l' The hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number (1-12). Single-digit numbers are padded with a space. `%s' The time as a decimal timestamp in seconds since the epoch. Additionally, the alternate representations are recognized but their normal representations are used. The following example is an `awk' implementation of the POSIX `date' utility. Normally, the `date' utility prints the current date and time of day in a well-known format. However, if you provide an argument to it that begins with a `+', `date' copies nonformat specifier characters to the standard output and interprets the current time according to the format specifiers in the string. For example: $ date '+Today is %A, %B %d, %Y.' -| Today is Wednesday, March 30, 2011. Here is the `gawk' version of the `date' utility. It has a shell "wrapper" to handle the `-u' option, which requires that `date' run as if the time zone is set to UTC: #! /bin/sh # # date --- approximate the POSIX 'date' command case $1 in -u) TZ=UTC0 # use UTC export TZ shift ;; esac gawk 'BEGIN { format = "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Z %Y" exitval = 0 if (ARGC > 2) exitval = 1 else if (ARGC == 2) { format = ARGV[1] if (format ~ /^\+/) format = substr(format, 2) # remove leading + } print strftime(format) exit exitval }' "$@" ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) *Note Glossary::, especially the entries "Epoch" and "UTC." (2) The GNU `date' utility can also do many of the things described here. Its use may be preferable for simple time-related operations in shell scripts. (3) Occasionally there are minutes in a year with a leap second, which is why the seconds can go up to 60. (4) Unfortunately, not every system's `strftime()' necessarily supports all of the conversions listed here. (5) If you don't understand any of this, don't worry about it; these facilities are meant to make it easier to "internationalize" programs. Other internationalization features are described in *note Internationalization::. (6) This is because ISO C leaves the behavior of the C version of `strftime()' undefined and `gawk' uses the system's version of `strftime()' if it's there. Typically, the conversion specifier either does not appear in the returned string or appears literally. File: gawk.info, Node: Bitwise Functions, Next: Type Functions, Prev: Time Functions, Up: Built-in 9.1.6 Bit-Manipulation Functions -------------------------------- I can explain it for you, but I can't understand it for you. Anonymous Many languages provide the ability to perform "bitwise" operations on two integer numbers. In other words, the operation is performed on each successive pair of bits in the operands. Three common operations are bitwise AND, OR, and XOR. The operations are described in *note table-bitwise-ops::. Bit Operator | AND | OR | XOR |--+--+--+--+--+-- Operands | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 ---------+--+--+--+--+--+-- 0 | 0 0 | 0 1 | 0 1 1 | 0 1 | 1 1 | 1 0 Table 9.4: Bitwise Operations As you can see, the result of an AND operation is 1 only when _both_ bits are 1. The result of an OR operation is 1 if _either_ bit is 1. The result of an XOR operation is 1 if either bit is 1, but not both. The next operation is the "complement"; the complement of 1 is 0 and the complement of 0 is 1. Thus, this operation "flips" all the bits of a given value. Finally, two other common operations are to shift the bits left or right. For example, if you have a bit string `10111001' and you shift it right by three bits, you end up with `00010111'.(1) If you start over again with `10111001' and shift it left by three bits, you end up with `11001000'. `gawk' provides built-in functions that implement the bitwise operations just described. They are: `and(V1, V2)' Return the bitwise AND of the values provided by V1 and V2. `compl(VAL)' Return the bitwise complement of VAL. `lshift(VAL, COUNT)' Return the value of VAL, shifted left by COUNT bits. `or(V1, V2)' Return the bitwise OR of the values provided by V1 and V2. `rshift(VAL, COUNT)' Return the value of VAL, shifted right by COUNT bits. `xor(V1, V2)' Return the bitwise XOR of the values provided by V1 and V2. For all of these functions, first the double precision floating-point value is converted to the widest C unsigned integer type, then the bitwise operation is performed. If the result cannot be represented exactly as a C `double', leading nonzero bits are removed one by one until it can be represented exactly. The result is then converted back into a C `double'. (If you don't understand this paragraph, don't worry about it.) Here is a user-defined function (*note User-defined::) that illustrates the use of these functions: # bits2str --- turn a byte into readable 1's and 0's function bits2str(bits, data, mask) { if (bits == 0) return "0" mask = 1 for (; bits != 0; bits = rshift(bits, 1)) data = (and(bits, mask) ? "1" : "0") data while ((length(data) % 8) != 0) data = "0" data return data } BEGIN { printf "123 = %s\n", bits2str(123) printf "0123 = %s\n", bits2str(0123) printf "0x99 = %s\n", bits2str(0x99) comp = compl(0x99) printf "compl(0x99) = %#x = %s\n", comp, bits2str(comp) shift = lshift(0x99, 2) printf "lshift(0x99, 2) = %#x = %s\n", shift, bits2str(shift) shift = rshift(0x99, 2) printf "rshift(0x99, 2) = %#x = %s\n", shift, bits2str(shift) } This program produces the following output when run: $ gawk -f testbits.awk -| 123 = 01111011 -| 0123 = 01010011 -| 0x99 = 10011001 -| compl(0x99) = 0xffffff66 = 11111111111111111111111101100110 -| lshift(0x99, 2) = 0x264 = 0000001001100100 -| rshift(0x99, 2) = 0x26 = 00100110 The `bits2str()' function turns a binary number into a string. The number `1' represents a binary value where the rightmost bit is set to 1. Using this mask, the function repeatedly checks the rightmost bit. ANDing the mask with the value indicates whether the rightmost bit is 1 or not. If so, a `"1"' is concatenated onto the front of the string. Otherwise, a `"0"' is added. The value is then shifted right by one bit and the loop continues until there are no more 1 bits. If the initial value is zero it returns a simple `"0"'. Otherwise, at the end, it pads the value with zeros to represent multiples of 8-bit quantities. This is typical in modern computers. The main code in the `BEGIN' rule shows the difference between the decimal and octal values for the same numbers (*note Nondecimal-numbers::), and then demonstrates the results of the `compl()', `lshift()', and `rshift()' functions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This example shows that 0's come in on the left side. For `gawk', this is always true, but in some languages, it's possible to have the left side fill with 1's. Caveat emptor. File: gawk.info, Node: Type Functions, Next: I18N Functions, Prev: Bitwise Functions, Up: Built-in 9.1.7 Getting Type Information ------------------------------ `gawk' provides a single function that lets you distinguish an array from a scalar variable. This is necessary for writing code that traverses every element of a true multidimensional array (*note Arrays of Arrays::). `isarray(X)' Return a true value if X is an array. Otherwise return false. File: gawk.info, Node: I18N Functions, Prev: Type Functions, Up: Built-in 9.1.8 String-Translation Functions ---------------------------------- `gawk' provides facilities for internationalizing `awk' programs. These include the functions described in the following list. The descriptions here are purposely brief. *Note Internationalization::, for the full story. Optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]): `bindtextdomain(DIRECTORY [, DOMAIN])' Set the directory in which `gawk' will look for message translation files, in case they will not or cannot be placed in the "standard" locations (e.g., during testing). It returns the directory in which DOMAIN is "bound." The default DOMAIN is the value of `TEXTDOMAIN'. If DIRECTORY is the null string (`""'), then `bindtextdomain()' returns the current binding for the given DOMAIN. `dcgettext(STRING [, DOMAIN [, CATEGORY]])' Return the translation of STRING in text domain DOMAIN for locale category CATEGORY. The default value for DOMAIN is the current value of `TEXTDOMAIN'. The default value for CATEGORY is `"LC_MESSAGES"'. `dcngettext(STRING1, STRING2, NUMBER [, DOMAIN [, CATEGORY]])' Return the plural form used for NUMBER of the translation of STRING1 and STRING2 in text domain DOMAIN for locale category CATEGORY. STRING1 is the English singular variant of a message, and STRING2 the English plural variant of the same message. The default value for DOMAIN is the current value of `TEXTDOMAIN'. The default value for CATEGORY is `"LC_MESSAGES"'. File: gawk.info, Node: User-defined, Next: Indirect Calls, Prev: Built-in, Up: Functions 9.2 User-Defined Functions ========================== Complicated `awk' programs can often be simplified by defining your own functions. User-defined functions can be called just like built-in ones (*note Function Calls::), but it is up to you to define them, i.e., to tell `awk' what they should do. * Menu: * Definition Syntax:: How to write definitions and what they mean. * Function Example:: An example function definition and what it does. * Function Caveats:: Things to watch out for. * Return Statement:: Specifying the value a function returns. * Dynamic Typing:: How variable types can change at runtime. File: gawk.info, Node: Definition Syntax, Next: Function Example, Up: User-defined 9.2.1 Function Definition Syntax -------------------------------- Definitions of functions can appear anywhere between the rules of an `awk' program. Thus, the general form of an `awk' program is extended to include sequences of rules _and_ user-defined function definitions. There is no need to put the definition of a function before all uses of the function. This is because `awk' reads the entire program before starting to execute any of it. The definition of a function named NAME looks like this: function NAME([PARAMETER-LIST]) { BODY-OF-FUNCTION } Here, NAME is the name of the function to define. A valid function name is like a valid variable name: a sequence of letters, digits, and underscores that doesn't start with a digit. Within a single `awk' program, any particular name can only be used as a variable, array, or function. PARAMETER-LIST is an optional list of the function's arguments and local variable names, separated by commas. When the function is called, the argument names are used to hold the argument values given in the call. The local variables are initialized to the empty string. A function cannot have two parameters with the same name, nor may it have a parameter with the same name as the function itself. In addition, according to the POSIX standard, function parameters cannot have the same name as one of the special built-in variables (*note Built-in Variables::. Not all versions of `awk' enforce this restriction. The BODY-OF-FUNCTION consists of `awk' statements. It is the most important part of the definition, because it says what the function should actually _do_. The argument names exist to give the body a way to talk about the arguments; local variables exist to give the body places to keep temporary values. Argument names are not distinguished syntactically from local variable names. Instead, the number of arguments supplied when the function is called determines how many argument variables there are. Thus, if three argument values are given, the first three names in PARAMETER-LIST are arguments and the rest are local variables. It follows that if the number of arguments is not the same in all calls to the function, some of the names in PARAMETER-LIST may be arguments on some occasions and local variables on others. Another way to think of this is that omitted arguments default to the null string. Usually when you write a function, you know how many names you intend to use for arguments and how many you intend to use as local variables. It is conventional to place some extra space between the arguments and the local variables, in order to document how your function is supposed to be used. During execution of the function body, the arguments and local variable values hide, or "shadow", any variables of the same names used in the rest of the program. The shadowed variables are not accessible in the function definition, because there is no way to name them while their names have been taken away for the local variables. All other variables used in the `awk' program can be referenced or set normally in the function's body. The arguments and local variables last only as long as the function body is executing. Once the body finishes, you can once again access the variables that were shadowed while the function was running. The function body can contain expressions that call functions. They can even call this function, either directly or by way of another function. When this happens, we say the function is "recursive". The act of a function calling itself is called "recursion". All the built-in functions return a value to their caller. User-defined functions can do also, using the `return' statement, which is described in detail in *note Return Statement::. Many of the subsequent examples in this minor node use the `return' statement. In many `awk' implementations, including `gawk', the keyword `function' may be abbreviated `func'. (c.e.) However, POSIX only specifies the use of the keyword `function'. This actually has some practical implications. If `gawk' is in POSIX-compatibility mode (*note Options::), then the following statement does _not_ define a function: func foo() { a = sqrt($1) ; print a } Instead it defines a rule that, for each record, concatenates the value of the variable `func' with the return value of the function `foo'. If the resulting string is non-null, the action is executed. This is probably not what is desired. (`awk' accepts this input as syntactically valid, because functions may be used before they are defined in `awk' programs.(1)) To ensure that your `awk' programs are portable, always use the keyword `function' when defining a function. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This program won't actually run, since `foo()' is undefined. File: gawk.info, Node: Function Example, Next: Function Caveats, Prev: Definition Syntax, Up: User-defined 9.2.2 Function Definition Examples ---------------------------------- Here is an example of a user-defined function, called `myprint()', that takes a number and prints it in a specific format: function myprint(num) { printf "%6.3g\n", num } To illustrate, here is an `awk' rule that uses our `myprint' function: $3 > 0 { myprint($3) } This program prints, in our special format, all the third fields that contain a positive number in our input. Therefore, when given the following input: 1.2 3.4 5.6 7.8 9.10 11.12 -13.14 15.16 17.18 19.20 21.22 23.24 this program, using our function to format the results, prints: 5.6 21.2 This function deletes all the elements in an array: function delarray(a, i) { for (i in a) delete a[i] } When working with arrays, it is often necessary to delete all the elements in an array and start over with a new list of elements (*note Delete::). Instead of having to repeat this loop everywhere that you need to clear out an array, your program can just call `delarray'. (This guarantees portability. The use of `delete ARRAY' to delete the contents of an entire array is a nonstandard extension.) The following is an example of a recursive function. It takes a string as an input parameter and returns the string in backwards order. Recursive functions must always have a test that stops the recursion. In this case, the recursion terminates when the starting position is zero, i.e., when there are no more characters left in the string. function rev(str, start) { if (start == 0) return "" return (substr(str, start, 1) rev(str, start - 1)) } If this function is in a file named `rev.awk', it can be tested this way: $ echo "Don't Panic!" | > gawk --source '{ print rev($0, length($0)) }' -f rev.awk -| !cinaP t'noD The C `ctime()' function takes a timestamp and returns it in a string, formatted in a well-known fashion. The following example uses the built-in `strftime()' function (*note Time Functions::) to create an `awk' version of `ctime()': # ctime.awk # # awk version of C ctime(3) function function ctime(ts, format) { format = "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Z %Y" if (ts == 0) ts = systime() # use current time as default return strftime(format, ts) } File: gawk.info, Node: Function Caveats, Next: Return Statement, Prev: Function Example, Up: User-defined 9.2.3 Calling User-Defined Functions ------------------------------------ This section describes how to call a user-defined function. * Menu: * Calling A Function:: Don't use spaces. * Variable Scope:: Controlling variable scope. * Pass By Value/Reference:: Passing parameters. File: gawk.info, Node: Calling A Function, Next: Variable Scope, Up: Function Caveats 9.2.3.1 Writing A Function Call ............................... "Calling a function" means causing the function to run and do its job. A function call is an expression and its value is the value returned by the function. A function call consists of the function name followed by the arguments in parentheses. `awk' expressions are what you write in the call for the arguments. Each time the call is executed, these expressions are evaluated, and the values become the actual arguments. For example, here is a call to `foo()' with three arguments (the first being a string concatenation): foo(x y, "lose", 4 * z) CAUTION: Whitespace characters (spaces and TABs) are not allowed between the function name and the open-parenthesis of the argument list. If you write whitespace by mistake, `awk' might think that you mean to concatenate a variable with an expression in parentheses. However, it notices that you used a function name and not a variable name, and reports an error. File: gawk.info, Node: Variable Scope, Next: Pass By Value/Reference, Prev: Calling A Function, Up: Function Caveats 9.2.3.2 Controlling Variable Scope .................................. There is no way to make a variable local to a `{ ... }' block in `awk', but you can make a variable local to a function. It is good practice to do so whenever a variable is needed only in that function. To make a variable local to a function, simply declare the variable as an argument after the actual function arguments (*note Definition Syntax::). Look at the following example where variable `i' is a global variable used by both functions `foo()' and `bar()': function bar() { for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) print "bar's i=" i } function foo(j) { i = j + 1 print "foo's i=" i bar() print "foo's i=" i } BEGIN { i = 10 print "top's i=" i foo(0) print "top's i=" i } Running this script produces the following, because the `i' in functions `foo()' and `bar()' and at the top level refer to the same variable instance: top's i=10 foo's i=1 bar's i=0 bar's i=1 bar's i=2 foo's i=3 top's i=3 If you want `i' to be local to both `foo()' and `bar()' do as follows (the extra-space before `i' is a coding convention to indicate that `i' is a local variable, not an argument): function bar( i) { for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) print "bar's i=" i } function foo(j, i) { i = j + 1 print "foo's i=" i bar() print "foo's i=" i } BEGIN { i = 10 print "top's i=" i foo(0) print "top's i=" i } Running the corrected script produces the following: top's i=10 foo's i=1 bar's i=0 bar's i=1 bar's i=2 foo's i=1 top's i=10 File: gawk.info, Node: Pass By Value/Reference, Prev: Variable Scope, Up: Function Caveats 9.2.3.3 Passing Function Arguments By Value Or By Reference ........................................................... In `awk', when you declare a function, there is no way to declare explicitly whether the arguments are passed "by value" or "by reference". Instead the passing convention is determined at runtime when the function is called according to the following rule: * If the argument is an array variable, then it is passed by reference, * Otherwise the argument is passed by value. Passing an argument by value means that when a function is called, it is given a _copy_ of the value of this argument. The caller may use a variable as the expression for the argument, but the called function does not know this--it only knows what value the argument had. For example, if you write the following code: foo = "bar" z = myfunc(foo) then you should not think of the argument to `myfunc()' as being "the variable `foo'." Instead, think of the argument as the string value `"bar"'. If the function `myfunc()' alters the values of its local variables, this has no effect on any other variables. Thus, if `myfunc()' does this: function myfunc(str) { print str str = "zzz" print str } to change its first argument variable `str', it does _not_ change the value of `foo' in the caller. The role of `foo' in calling `myfunc()' ended when its value (`"bar"') was computed. If `str' also exists outside of `myfunc()', the function body cannot alter this outer value, because it is shadowed during the execution of `myfunc()' and cannot be seen or changed from there. However, when arrays are the parameters to functions, they are _not_ copied. Instead, the array itself is made available for direct manipulation by the function. This is usually termed "call by reference". Changes made to an array parameter inside the body of a function _are_ visible outside that function. NOTE: Changing an array parameter inside a function can be very dangerous if you do not watch what you are doing. For example: function changeit(array, ind, nvalue) { array[ind] = nvalue } BEGIN { a[1] = 1; a[2] = 2; a[3] = 3 changeit(a, 2, "two") printf "a[1] = %s, a[2] = %s, a[3] = %s\n", a[1], a[2], a[3] } prints `a[1] = 1, a[2] = two, a[3] = 3', because `changeit' stores `"two"' in the second element of `a'. Some `awk' implementations allow you to call a function that has not been defined. They only report a problem at runtime when the program actually tries to call the function. For example: BEGIN { if (0) foo() else bar() } function bar() { ... } # note that `foo' is not defined Because the `if' statement will never be true, it is not really a problem that `foo()' has not been defined. Usually, though, it is a problem if a program calls an undefined function. If `--lint' is specified (*note Options::), `gawk' reports calls to undefined functions. Some `awk' implementations generate a runtime error if you use the `next' statement (*note Next Statement::) inside a user-defined function. `gawk' does not have this limitation. File: gawk.info, Node: Return Statement, Next: Dynamic Typing, Prev: Function Caveats, Up: User-defined 9.2.4 The `return' Statement ---------------------------- As seen in several earlier examples, the body of a user-defined function can contain a `return' statement. This statement returns control to the calling part of the `awk' program. It can also be used to return a value for use in the rest of the `awk' program. It looks like this: return [EXPRESSION] The EXPRESSION part is optional. Due most likely to an oversight, POSIX does not define what the return value is if you omit the EXPRESSION. Technically speaking, this make the returned value undefined, and therefore, unpredictable. In practice, though, all versions of `awk' simply return the null string, which acts like zero if used in a numeric context. A `return' statement with no value expression is assumed at the end of every function definition. So if control reaches the end of the function body, then technically, the function returns an unpredictable value. In practice, it returns the empty string. `awk' does _not_ warn you if you use the return value of such a function. Sometimes, you want to write a function for what it does, not for what it returns. Such a function corresponds to a `void' function in C, C++ or Java, or to a `procedure' in Ada. Thus, it may be appropriate to not return any value; simply bear in mind that you should not be using the return value of such a function. The following is an example of a user-defined function that returns a value for the largest number among the elements of an array: function maxelt(vec, i, ret) { for (i in vec) { if (ret == "" || vec[i] > ret) ret = vec[i] } return ret } You call `maxelt()' with one argument, which is an array name. The local variables `i' and `ret' are not intended to be arguments; while there is nothing to stop you from passing more than one argument to `maxelt()', the results would be strange. The extra space before `i' in the function parameter list indicates that `i' and `ret' are local variables. You should follow this convention when defining functions. The following program uses the `maxelt()' function. It loads an array, calls `maxelt()', and then reports the maximum number in that array: function maxelt(vec, i, ret) { for (i in vec) { if (ret == "" || vec[i] > ret) ret = vec[i] } return ret } # Load all fields of each record into nums. { for(i = 1; i <= NF; i++) nums[NR, i] = $i } END { print maxelt(nums) } Given the following input: 1 5 23 8 16 44 3 5 2 8 26 256 291 1396 2962 100 -6 467 998 1101 99385 11 0 225 the program reports (predictably) that 99,385 is the largest value in the array. File: gawk.info, Node: Dynamic Typing, Prev: Return Statement, Up: User-defined 9.2.5 Functions and Their Effects on Variable Typing ---------------------------------------------------- `awk' is a very fluid language. It is possible that `awk' can't tell if an identifier represents a scalar variable or an array until runtime. Here is an annotated sample program: function foo(a) { a[1] = 1 # parameter is an array } BEGIN { b = 1 foo(b) # invalid: fatal type mismatch foo(x) # x uninitialized, becomes an array dynamically x = 1 # now not allowed, runtime error } Usually, such things aren't a big issue, but it's worth being aware of them. File: gawk.info, Node: Indirect Calls, Prev: User-defined, Up: Functions 9.3 Indirect Function Calls =========================== This section describes a `gawk'-specific extension. Often, you may wish to defer the choice of function to call until runtime. For example, you may have different kinds of records, each of which should be processed differently. Normally, you would have to use a series of `if'-`else' statements to decide which function to call. By using "indirect" function calls, you can specify the name of the function to call as a string variable, and then call the function. Let's look at an example. Suppose you have a file with your test scores for the classes you are taking. The first field is the class name. The following fields are the functions to call to process the data, up to a "marker" field `data:'. Following the marker, to the end of the record, are the various numeric test scores. Here is the initial file; you wish to get the sum and the average of your test scores: Biology_101 sum average data: 87.0 92.4 78.5 94.9 Chemistry_305 sum average data: 75.2 98.3 94.7 88.2 English_401 sum average data: 100.0 95.6 87.1 93.4 To process the data, you might write initially: { class = $1 for (i = 2; $i != "data:"; i++) { if ($i == "sum") sum() # processes the whole record else if ($i == "average") average() ... # and so on } } This style of programming works, but can be awkward. With "indirect" function calls, you tell `gawk' to use the _value_ of a variable as the name of the function to call. The syntax is similar to that of a regular function call: an identifier immediately followed by a left parenthesis, any arguments, and then a closing right parenthesis, with the addition of a leading `@' character: the_func = "sum" result = @the_func() # calls the `sum' function Here is a full program that processes the previously shown data, using indirect function calls. # indirectcall.awk --- Demonstrate indirect function calls # average --- return the average of the values in fields $first - $last function average(first, last, sum, i) { sum = 0; for (i = first; i <= last; i++) sum += $i return sum / (last - first + 1) } # sum --- return the sum of the values in fields $first - $last function sum(first, last, ret, i) { ret = 0; for (i = first; i <= last; i++) ret += $i return ret } These two functions expect to work on fields; thus the parameters `first' and `last' indicate where in the fields to start and end. Otherwise they perform the expected computations and are not unusual. # For each record, print the class name and the requested statistics { class_name = $1 gsub(/_/, " ", class_name) # Replace _ with spaces # find start for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) { if ($i == "data:") { start = i + 1 break } } printf("%s:\n", class_name) for (i = 2; $i != "data:"; i++) { the_function = $i printf("\t%s: <%s>\n", $i, @the_function(start, NF) "") } print "" } This is the main processing for each record. It prints the class name (with underscores replaced with spaces). It then finds the start of the actual data, saving it in `start'. The last part of the code loops through each function name (from `$2' up to the marker, `data:'), calling the function named by the field. The indirect function call itself occurs as a parameter in the call to `printf'. (The `printf' format string uses `%s' as the format specifier so that we can use functions that return strings, as well as numbers. Note that the result from the indirect call is concatenated with the empty string, in order to force it to be a string value.) Here is the result of running the program: $ gawk -f indirectcall.awk class_data1 -| Biology 101: -| sum: <352.8> -| average: <88.2> -| -| Chemistry 305: -| sum: <356.4> -| average: <89.1> -| -| English 401: -| sum: <376.1> -| average: <94.025> The ability to use indirect function calls is more powerful than you may think at first. The C and C++ languages provide "function pointers," which are a mechanism for calling a function chosen at runtime. One of the most well-known uses of this ability is the C `qsort()' function, which sorts an array using the famous "quick sort" algorithm (see the Wikipedia article (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quick_sort) for more information). To use this function, you supply a pointer to a comparison function. This mechanism allows you to sort arbitrary data in an arbitrary fashion. We can do something similar using `gawk', like this: # quicksort.awk --- Quicksort algorithm, with user-supplied # comparison function # quicksort --- C.A.R. Hoare's quick sort algorithm. See Wikipedia # or almost any algorithms or computer science text function quicksort(data, left, right, less_than, i, last) { if (left >= right) # do nothing if array contains fewer return # than two elements quicksort_swap(data, left, int((left + right) / 2)) last = left for (i = left + 1; i <= right; i++) if (@less_than(data[i], data[left])) quicksort_swap(data, ++last, i) quicksort_swap(data, left, last) quicksort(data, left, last - 1, less_than) quicksort(data, last + 1, right, less_than) } # quicksort_swap --- helper function for quicksort, should really be inline function quicksort_swap(data, i, j, temp) { temp = data[i] data[i] = data[j] data[j] = temp } The `quicksort()' function receives the `data' array, the starting and ending indices to sort (`left' and `right'), and the name of a function that performs a "less than" comparison. It then implements the quick sort algorithm. To make use of the sorting function, we return to our previous example. The first thing to do is write some comparison functions: # num_lt --- do a numeric less than comparison function num_lt(left, right) { return ((left + 0) < (right + 0)) } # num_ge --- do a numeric greater than or equal to comparison function num_ge(left, right) { return ((left + 0) >= (right + 0)) } The `num_ge()' function is needed to perform a descending sort; when used to perform a "less than" test, it actually does the opposite (greater than or equal to), which yields data sorted in descending order. Next comes a sorting function. It is parameterized with the starting and ending field numbers and the comparison function. It builds an array with the data and calls `quicksort' appropriately, and then formats the results as a single string: # do_sort --- sort the data according to `compare' # and return it as a string function do_sort(first, last, compare, data, i, retval) { delete data for (i = 1; first <= last; first++) { data[i] = $first i++ } quicksort(data, 1, i-1, compare) retval = data[1] for (i = 2; i in data; i++) retval = retval " " data[i] return retval } Finally, the two sorting functions call `do_sort()', passing in the names of the two comparison functions: # sort --- sort the data in ascending order and return it as a string function sort(first, last) { return do_sort(first, last, "num_lt") } # rsort --- sort the data in descending order and return it as a string function rsort(first, last) { return do_sort(first, last, "num_ge") } Here is an extended version of the data file: Biology_101 sum average sort rsort data: 87.0 92.4 78.5 94.9 Chemistry_305 sum average sort rsort data: 75.2 98.3 94.7 88.2 English_401 sum average sort rsort data: 100.0 95.6 87.1 93.4 Finally, here are the results when the enhanced program is run: $ gawk -f quicksort.awk -f indirectcall.awk class_data2 -| Biology 101: -| sum: <352.8> -| average: <88.2> -| sort: <78.5 87.0 92.4 94.9> -| rsort: <94.9 92.4 87.0 78.5> -| -| Chemistry 305: -| sum: <356.4> -| average: <89.1> -| sort: <75.2 88.2 94.7 98.3> -| rsort: <98.3 94.7 88.2 75.2> -| -| English 401: -| sum: <376.1> -| average: <94.025> -| sort: <87.1 93.4 95.6 100.0> -| rsort: <100.0 95.6 93.4 87.1> Remember that you must supply a leading `@' in front of an indirect function call. Unfortunately, indirect function calls cannot be used with the built-in functions. However, you can generally write "wrapper" functions which call the built-in ones, and those can be called indirectly. (Other than, perhaps, the mathematical functions, there is not a lot of reason to try to call the built-in functions indirectly.) `gawk' does its best to make indirect function calls efficient. For example, in the following case: for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) @the_func() `gawk' will look up the actual function to call only once. File: gawk.info, Node: Internationalization, Next: Advanced Features, Prev: Functions, Up: Top 10 Internationalization with `gawk' *********************************** Once upon a time, computer makers wrote software that worked only in English. Eventually, hardware and software vendors noticed that if their systems worked in the native languages of non-English-speaking countries, they were able to sell more systems. As a result, internationalization and localization of programs and software systems became a common practice. For many years, the ability to provide internationalization was largely restricted to programs written in C and C++. This major node describes the underlying library `gawk' uses for internationalization, as well as how `gawk' makes internationalization features available at the `awk' program level. Having internationalization available at the `awk' level gives software developers additional flexibility--they are no longer forced to write in C or C++ when internationalization is a requirement. * Menu: * I18N and L10N:: Internationalization and Localization. * Explaining gettext:: How GNU `gettext' works. * Programmer i18n:: Features for the programmer. * Translator i18n:: Features for the translator. * I18N Example:: A simple i18n example. * Gawk I18N:: `gawk' is also internationalized. File: gawk.info, Node: I18N and L10N, Next: Explaining gettext, Up: Internationalization 10.1 Internationalization and Localization ========================================== "Internationalization" means writing (or modifying) a program once, in such a way that it can use multiple languages without requiring further source-code changes. "Localization" means providing the data necessary for an internationalized program to work in a particular language. Most typically, these terms refer to features such as the language used for printing error messages, the language used to read responses, and information related to how numerical and monetary values are printed and read. File: gawk.info, Node: Explaining gettext, Next: Programmer i18n, Prev: I18N and L10N, Up: Internationalization 10.2 GNU `gettext' ================== The facilities in GNU `gettext' focus on messages; strings printed by a program, either directly or via formatting with `printf' or `sprintf()'.(1) When using GNU `gettext', each application has its own "text domain". This is a unique name, such as `kpilot' or `gawk', that identifies the application. A complete application may have multiple components--programs written in C or C++, as well as scripts written in `sh' or `awk'. All of the components use the same text domain. To make the discussion concrete, assume we're writing an application named `guide'. Internationalization consists of the following steps, in this order: 1. The programmer goes through the source for all of `guide''s components and marks each string that is a candidate for translation. For example, `"`-F': option required"' is a good candidate for translation. A table with strings of option names is not (e.g., `gawk''s `--profile' option should remain the same, no matter what the local language). 2. The programmer indicates the application's text domain (`"guide"') to the `gettext' library, by calling the `textdomain()' function. 3. Messages from the application are extracted from the source code and collected into a portable object template file (`guide.pot'), which lists the strings and their translations. The translations are initially empty. The original (usually English) messages serve as the key for lookup of the translations. 4. For each language with a translator, `guide.pot' is copied to a portable object file (`.po') and translations are created and shipped with the application. For example, there might be a `fr.po' for a French translation. 5. Each language's `.po' file is converted into a binary message object (`.mo') file. A message object file contains the original messages and their translations in a binary format that allows fast lookup of translations at runtime. 6. When `guide' is built and installed, the binary translation files are installed in a standard place. 7. For testing and development, it is possible to tell `gettext' to use `.mo' files in a different directory than the standard one by using the `bindtextdomain()' function. 8. At runtime, `guide' looks up each string via a call to `gettext()'. The returned string is the translated string if available, or the original string if not. 9. If necessary, it is possible to access messages from a different text domain than the one belonging to the application, without having to switch the application's default text domain back and forth. In C (or C++), the string marking and dynamic translation lookup are accomplished by wrapping each string in a call to `gettext()': printf("%s", gettext("Don't Panic!\n")); The tools that extract messages from source code pull out all strings enclosed in calls to `gettext()'. The GNU `gettext' developers, recognizing that typing `gettext(...)' over and over again is both painful and ugly to look at, use the macro `_' (an underscore) to make things easier: /* In the standard header file: */ #define _(str) gettext(str) /* In the program text: */ printf("%s", _("Don't Panic!\n")); This reduces the typing overhead to just three extra characters per string and is considerably easier to read as well. There are locale "categories" for different types of locale-related information. The defined locale categories that `gettext' knows about are: `LC_MESSAGES' Text messages. This is the default category for `gettext' operations, but it is possible to supply a different one explicitly, if necessary. (It is almost never necessary to supply a different category.) `LC_COLLATE' Text-collation information; i.e., how different characters and/or groups of characters sort in a given language. `LC_CTYPE' Character-type information (alphabetic, digit, upper- or lowercase, and so on). This information is accessed via the POSIX character classes in regular expressions, such as `/[[:alnum:]]/' (*note Regexp Operators::). `LC_MONETARY' Monetary information, such as the currency symbol, and whether the symbol goes before or after a number. `LC_NUMERIC' Numeric information, such as which characters to use for the decimal point and the thousands separator.(2) `LC_RESPONSE' Response information, such as how "yes" and "no" appear in the local language, and possibly other information as well. `LC_TIME' Time- and date-related information, such as 12- or 24-hour clock, month printed before or after the day in a date, local month abbreviations, and so on. `LC_ALL' All of the above. (Not too useful in the context of `gettext'.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) For some operating systems, the `gawk' port doesn't support GNU `gettext'. Therefore, these features are not available if you are using one of those operating systems. Sorry. (2) Americans use a comma every three decimal places and a period for the decimal point, while many Europeans do exactly the opposite: 1,234.56 versus 1.234,56. File: gawk.info, Node: Programmer i18n, Next: Translator i18n, Prev: Explaining gettext, Up: Internationalization 10.3 Internationalizing `awk' Programs ====================================== `gawk' provides the following variables and functions for internationalization: `TEXTDOMAIN' This variable indicates the application's text domain. For compatibility with GNU `gettext', the default value is `"messages"'. `_"your message here"' String constants marked with a leading underscore are candidates for translation at runtime. String constants without a leading underscore are not translated. `dcgettext(STRING [, DOMAIN [, CATEGORY]])' Return the translation of STRING in text domain DOMAIN for locale category CATEGORY. The default value for DOMAIN is the current value of `TEXTDOMAIN'. The default value for CATEGORY is `"LC_MESSAGES"'. If you supply a value for CATEGORY, it must be a string equal to one of the known locale categories described in *note Explaining gettext::. You must also supply a text domain. Use `TEXTDOMAIN' if you want to use the current domain. CAUTION: The order of arguments to the `awk' version of the `dcgettext()' function is purposely different from the order for the C version. The `awk' version's order was chosen to be simple and to allow for reasonable `awk'-style default arguments. `dcngettext(STRING1, STRING2, NUMBER [, DOMAIN [, CATEGORY]])' Return the plural form used for NUMBER of the translation of STRING1 and STRING2 in text domain DOMAIN for locale category CATEGORY. STRING1 is the English singular variant of a message, and STRING2 the English plural variant of the same message. The default value for DOMAIN is the current value of `TEXTDOMAIN'. The default value for CATEGORY is `"LC_MESSAGES"'. The same remarks about argument order as for the `dcgettext()' function apply. `bindtextdomain(DIRECTORY [, DOMAIN])' Change the directory in which `gettext' looks for `.mo' files, in case they will not or cannot be placed in the standard locations (e.g., during testing). Return the directory in which DOMAIN is "bound." The default DOMAIN is the value of `TEXTDOMAIN'. If DIRECTORY is the null string (`""'), then `bindtextdomain()' returns the current binding for the given DOMAIN. To use these facilities in your `awk' program, follow the steps outlined in *note Explaining gettext::, like so: 1. Set the variable `TEXTDOMAIN' to the text domain of your program. This is best done in a `BEGIN' rule (*note BEGIN/END::), or it can also be done via the `-v' command-line option (*note Options::): BEGIN { TEXTDOMAIN = "guide" ... } 2. Mark all translatable strings with a leading underscore (`_') character. It _must_ be adjacent to the opening quote of the string. For example: print _"hello, world" x = _"you goofed" printf(_"Number of users is %d\n", nusers) 3. If you are creating strings dynamically, you can still translate them, using the `dcgettext()' built-in function: message = nusers " users logged in" message = dcgettext(message, "adminprog") print message Here, the call to `dcgettext()' supplies a different text domain (`"adminprog"') in which to find the message, but it uses the default `"LC_MESSAGES"' category. 4. During development, you might want to put the `.mo' file in a private directory for testing. This is done with the `bindtextdomain()' built-in function: BEGIN { TEXTDOMAIN = "guide" # our text domain if (Testing) { # where to find our files bindtextdomain("testdir") # joe is in charge of adminprog bindtextdomain("../joe/testdir", "adminprog") } ... } *Note I18N Example::, for an example program showing the steps to create and use translations from `awk'. File: gawk.info, Node: Translator i18n, Next: I18N Example, Prev: Programmer i18n, Up: Internationalization 10.4 Translating `awk' Programs =============================== Once a program's translatable strings have been marked, they must be extracted to create the initial `.po' file. As part of translation, it is often helpful to rearrange the order in which arguments to `printf' are output. `gawk''s `--gen-pot' command-line option extracts the messages and is discussed next. After that, `printf''s ability to rearrange the order for `printf' arguments at runtime is covered. * Menu: * String Extraction:: Extracting marked strings. * Printf Ordering:: Rearranging `printf' arguments. * I18N Portability:: `awk'-level portability issues. File: gawk.info, Node: String Extraction, Next: Printf Ordering, Up: Translator i18n 10.4.1 Extracting Marked Strings -------------------------------- Once your `awk' program is working, and all the strings have been marked and you've set (and perhaps bound) the text domain, it is time to produce translations. First, use the `--gen-pot' command-line option to create the initial `.pot' file: $ gawk --gen-pot -f guide.awk > guide.pot When run with `--gen-pot', `gawk' does not execute your program. Instead, it parses it as usual and prints all marked strings to standard output in the format of a GNU `gettext' Portable Object file. Also included in the output are any constant strings that appear as the first argument to `dcgettext()' or as the first and second argument to `dcngettext()'.(1) *Note I18N Example::, for the full list of steps to go through to create and test translations for `guide'. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The `xgettext' utility that comes with GNU `gettext' can handle `.awk' files. File: gawk.info, Node: Printf Ordering, Next: I18N Portability, Prev: String Extraction, Up: Translator i18n 10.4.2 Rearranging `printf' Arguments ------------------------------------- Format strings for `printf' and `sprintf()' (*note Printf::) present a special problem for translation. Consider the following:(1) printf(_"String `%s' has %d characters\n", string, length(string))) A possible German translation for this might be: "%d Zeichen lang ist die Zeichenkette `%s'\n" The problem should be obvious: the order of the format specifications is different from the original! Even though `gettext()' can return the translated string at runtime, it cannot change the argument order in the call to `printf'. To solve this problem, `printf' format specifiers may have an additional optional element, which we call a "positional specifier". For example: "%2$d Zeichen lang ist die Zeichenkette `%1$s'\n" Here, the positional specifier consists of an integer count, which indicates which argument to use, and a `$'. Counts are one-based, and the format string itself is _not_ included. Thus, in the following example, `string' is the first argument and `length(string)' is the second: $ gawk 'BEGIN { > string = "Dont Panic" > printf _"%2$d characters live in \"%1$s\"\n", > string, length(string) > }' -| 10 characters live in "Dont Panic" If present, positional specifiers come first in the format specification, before the flags, the field width, and/or the precision. Positional specifiers can be used with the dynamic field width and precision capability: $ gawk 'BEGIN { > printf("%*.*s\n", 10, 20, "hello") > printf("%3$*2$.*1$s\n", 20, 10, "hello") > }' -| hello -| hello NOTE: When using `*' with a positional specifier, the `*' comes first, then the integer position, and then the `$'. This is somewhat counterintuitive. `gawk' does not allow you to mix regular format specifiers and those with positional specifiers in the same string: $ gawk 'BEGIN { printf _"%d %3$s\n", 1, 2, "hi" }' error--> gawk: cmd. line:1: fatal: must use `count$' on all formats or none NOTE: There are some pathological cases that `gawk' may fail to diagnose. In such cases, the output may not be what you expect. It's still a bad idea to try mixing them, even if `gawk' doesn't detect it. Although positional specifiers can be used directly in `awk' programs, their primary purpose is to help in producing correct translations of format strings into languages different from the one in which the program is first written. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This example is borrowed from the GNU `gettext' manual. File: gawk.info, Node: I18N Portability, Prev: Printf Ordering, Up: Translator i18n 10.4.3 `awk' Portability Issues ------------------------------- `gawk''s internationalization features were purposely chosen to have as little impact as possible on the portability of `awk' programs that use them to other versions of `awk'. Consider this program: BEGIN { TEXTDOMAIN = "guide" if (Test_Guide) # set with -v bindtextdomain("/test/guide/messages") print _"don't panic!" } As written, it won't work on other versions of `awk'. However, it is actually almost portable, requiring very little change: * Assignments to `TEXTDOMAIN' won't have any effect, since `TEXTDOMAIN' is not special in other `awk' implementations. * Non-GNU versions of `awk' treat marked strings as the concatenation of a variable named `_' with the string following it.(1) Typically, the variable `_' has the null string (`""') as its value, leaving the original string constant as the result. * By defining "dummy" functions to replace `dcgettext()', `dcngettext()' and `bindtextdomain()', the `awk' program can be made to run, but all the messages are output in the original language. For example: function bindtextdomain(dir, domain) { return dir } function dcgettext(string, domain, category) { return string } function dcngettext(string1, string2, number, domain, category) { return (number == 1 ? string1 : string2) } * The use of positional specifications in `printf' or `sprintf()' is _not_ portable. To support `gettext()' at the C level, many systems' C versions of `sprintf()' do support positional specifiers. But it works only if enough arguments are supplied in the function call. Many versions of `awk' pass `printf' formats and arguments unchanged to the underlying C library version of `sprintf()', but only one format and argument at a time. What happens if a positional specification is used is anybody's guess. However, since the positional specifications are primarily for use in _translated_ format strings, and since non-GNU `awk's never retrieve the translated string, this should not be a problem in practice. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This is good fodder for an "Obfuscated `awk'" contest. File: gawk.info, Node: I18N Example, Next: Gawk I18N, Prev: Translator i18n, Up: Internationalization 10.5 A Simple Internationalization Example ========================================== Now let's look at a step-by-step example of how to internationalize and localize a simple `awk' program, using `guide.awk' as our original source: BEGIN { TEXTDOMAIN = "guide" bindtextdomain(".") # for testing print _"Don't Panic" print _"The Answer Is", 42 print "Pardon me, Zaphod who?" } Run `gawk --gen-pot' to create the `.pot' file: $ gawk --gen-pot -f guide.awk > guide.pot This produces: #: guide.awk:4 msgid "Don't Panic" msgstr "" #: guide.awk:5 msgid "The Answer Is" msgstr "" This original portable object template file is saved and reused for each language into which the application is translated. The `msgid' is the original string and the `msgstr' is the translation. NOTE: Strings not marked with a leading underscore do not appear in the `guide.pot' file. Next, the messages must be translated. Here is a translation to a hypothetical dialect of English, called "Mellow":(1) $ cp guide.pot guide-mellow.po ADD TRANSLATIONS TO guide-mellow.po ... Following are the translations: #: guide.awk:4 msgid "Don't Panic" msgstr "Hey man, relax!" #: guide.awk:5 msgid "The Answer Is" msgstr "Like, the scoop is" The next step is to make the directory to hold the binary message object file and then to create the `guide.mo' file. The directory layout shown here is standard for GNU `gettext' on GNU/Linux systems. Other versions of `gettext' may use a different layout: $ mkdir en_US en_US/LC_MESSAGES The `msgfmt' utility does the conversion from human-readable `.po' file to machine-readable `.mo' file. By default, `msgfmt' creates a file named `messages'. This file must be renamed and placed in the proper directory so that `gawk' can find it: $ msgfmt guide-mellow.po $ mv messages en_US/LC_MESSAGES/guide.mo Finally, we run the program to test it: $ gawk -f guide.awk -| Hey man, relax! -| Like, the scoop is 42 -| Pardon me, Zaphod who? If the three replacement functions for `dcgettext()', `dcngettext()' and `bindtextdomain()' (*note I18N Portability::) are in a file named `libintl.awk', then we can run `guide.awk' unchanged as follows: $ gawk --posix -f guide.awk -f libintl.awk -| Don't Panic -| The Answer Is 42 -| Pardon me, Zaphod who? ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Perhaps it would be better if it were called "Hippy." Ah, well. File: gawk.info, Node: Gawk I18N, Prev: I18N Example, Up: Internationalization 10.6 `gawk' Can Speak Your Language =================================== `gawk' itself has been internationalized using the GNU `gettext' package. (GNU `gettext' is described in complete detail in *note (GNU `gettext' utilities)Top:: gettext, GNU gettext tools.) As of this writing, the latest version of GNU `gettext' is version 0.18.1 (ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/gettext/gettext-0.18.1.tar.gz). If a translation of `gawk''s messages exists, then `gawk' produces usage messages, warnings, and fatal errors in the local language. File: gawk.info, Node: Advanced Features, Next: Library Functions, Prev: Internationalization, Up: Top 11 Advanced Features of `gawk' ****************************** Write documentation as if whoever reads it is a violent psychopath who knows where you live. Steve English, as quoted by Peter Langston This major node discusses advanced features in `gawk'. It's a bit of a "grab bag" of items that are otherwise unrelated to each other. First, a command-line option allows `gawk' to recognize nondecimal numbers in input data, not just in `awk' programs. Then, `gawk''s special features for sorting arrays are presented. Next, two-way I/O, discussed briefly in earlier parts of this Info file, is described in full detail, along with the basics of TCP/IP networking. Finally, `gawk' can "profile" an `awk' program, making it possible to tune it for performance. *note Dynamic Extensions::, discusses the ability to dynamically add new built-in functions to `gawk'. As this feature is still immature and likely to change, its description is relegated to an appendix. * Menu: * Nondecimal Data:: Allowing nondecimal input data. * Array Sorting:: Facilities for controlling array traversal and sorting arrays. * Two-way I/O:: Two-way communications with another process. * TCP/IP Networking:: Using `gawk' for network programming. * Profiling:: Profiling your `awk' programs. File: gawk.info, Node: Nondecimal Data, Next: Array Sorting, Up: Advanced Features 11.1 Allowing Nondecimal Input Data =================================== If you run `gawk' with the `--non-decimal-data' option, you can have nondecimal constants in your input data: $ echo 0123 123 0x123 | > gawk --non-decimal-data '{ printf "%d, %d, %d\n", > $1, $2, $3 }' -| 83, 123, 291 For this feature to work, write your program so that `gawk' treats your data as numeric: $ echo 0123 123 0x123 | gawk '{ print $1, $2, $3 }' -| 0123 123 0x123 The `print' statement treats its expressions as strings. Although the fields can act as numbers when necessary, they are still strings, so `print' does not try to treat them numerically. You may need to add zero to a field to force it to be treated as a number. For example: $ echo 0123 123 0x123 | gawk --non-decimal-data ' > { print $1, $2, $3 > print $1 + 0, $2 + 0, $3 + 0 }' -| 0123 123 0x123 -| 83 123 291 Because it is common to have decimal data with leading zeros, and because using this facility could lead to surprising results, the default is to leave it disabled. If you want it, you must explicitly request it. CAUTION: _Use of this option is not recommended._ It can break old programs very badly. Instead, use the `strtonum()' function to convert your data (*note Nondecimal-numbers::). This makes your programs easier to write and easier to read, and leads to less surprising results. File: gawk.info, Node: Array Sorting, Next: Two-way I/O, Prev: Nondecimal Data, Up: Advanced Features 11.2 Controlling Array Traversal and Array Sorting ================================================== `gawk' lets you control the order in which `for (i in array)' loops will traverse an array. In addition, two built-in functions, `asort()' and `asorti()', let you sort arrays based on the array values and indices, respectively. These two functions also provide control over the sorting criteria used to order the elements during sorting. * Menu: * Controlling Array Traversal:: How to use PROCINFO["sorted_in"]. * Array Sorting Functions:: How to use `asort()' and `asorti()'. File: gawk.info, Node: Controlling Array Traversal, Next: Array Sorting Functions, Up: Array Sorting 11.2.1 Controlling Array Traversal ---------------------------------- By default, the order in which a `for (i in array)' loop scans an array is not defined; it is generally based upon the internal implementation of arrays inside `awk'. Often, though, it is desirable to be able to loop over the elements in a particular order that you, the programmer, choose. `gawk' lets you do this; this node describes how. * Menu: * Controlling Scanning With A Function:: Using a function to control scanning. * Controlling Scanning:: Controlling the order in which arrays are scanned. File: gawk.info, Node: Controlling Scanning With A Function, Next: Controlling Scanning, Up: Controlling Array Traversal 11.2.1.1 Array Scanning Using A User-defined Function ..................................................... The value of `PROCINFO["sorted_in"]' can be a function name. This lets you traverse an array based on any custom criterion. The array elements are ordered according to the return value of this function. The comparison function should be defined with at least four arguments: function comp_func(i1, v1, i2, v2) { COMPARE ELEMENTS 1 AND 2 IN SOME FASHION RETURN < 0; 0; OR > 0 } Here, I1 and I2 are the indices, and V1 and V2 are the corresponding values of the two elements being compared. Either V1 or V2, or both, can be arrays if the array being traversed contains subarrays as values. The three possible return values are interpreted this way: `comp_func(i1, v1, i2, v2) < 0' Index I1 comes before index I2 during loop traversal. `comp_func(i1, v1, i2, v2) == 0' Indices I1 and I2 come together but the relative order with respect to each other is undefined. `comp_func(i1, v1, i2, v2) > 0' Index I1 comes after index I2 during loop traversal. Our first comparison function can be used to scan an array in numerical order of the indices: function cmp_num_idx(i1, v1, i2, v2) { # numerical index comparison, ascending order return (i1 - i2) } Our second function traverses an array based on the string order of the element values rather than by indices: function cmp_str_val(i1, v1, i2, v2) { # string value comparison, ascending order v1 = v1 "" v2 = v2 "" if (v1 < v2) return -1 return (v1 != v2) } The third comparison function makes all numbers, and numeric strings without any leading or trailing spaces, come out first during loop traversal: function cmp_num_str_val(i1, v1, i2, v2, n1, n2) { # numbers before string value comparison, ascending order n1 = v1 + 0 n2 = v2 + 0 if (n1 == v1) return (n2 == v2) ? (n1 - n2) : -1 else if (n2 == v2) return 1 return (v1 < v2) ? -1 : (v1 != v2) } Here is a main program to demonstrate how `gawk' behaves using each of the previous functions: BEGIN { data["one"] = 10 data["two"] = 20 data[10] = "one" data[100] = 100 data[20] = "two" f[1] = "cmp_num_idx" f[2] = "cmp_str_val" f[3] = "cmp_num_str_val" for (i = 1; i <= 3; i++) { printf("Sort function: %s\n", f[i]) PROCINFO["sorted_in"] = f[i] for (j in data) printf("\tdata[%s] = %s\n", j, data[j]) print "" } } Here are the results when the program is run: $ gawk -f compdemo.awk -| Sort function: cmp_num_idx Sort by numeric index -| data[two] = 20 -| data[one] = 10 Both strings are numerically zero -| data[10] = one -| data[20] = two -| data[100] = 100 -| -| Sort function: cmp_str_val Sort by element values as strings -| data[one] = 10 -| data[100] = 100 String 100 is less than string 20 -| data[two] = 20 -| data[10] = one -| data[20] = two -| -| Sort function: cmp_num_str_val Sort all numbers before all strings -| data[one] = 10 -| data[two] = 20 -| data[100] = 100 -| data[10] = one -| data[20] = two Consider sorting the entries of a GNU/Linux system password file according to login names. The following program sorts records by a specific field position and can be used for this purpose: # sort.awk --- simple program to sort by field position # field position is specified by the global variable POS function cmp_field(i1, v1, i2, v2) { # comparison by value, as string, and ascending order return v1[POS] < v2[POS] ? -1 : (v1[POS] != v2[POS]) } { for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) a[NR][i] = $i } END { PROCINFO["sorted_in"] = "cmp_field" if (POS < 1 || POS > NF) POS = 1 for (i in a) { for (j = 1; j <= NF; j++) printf("%s%c", a[i][j], j < NF ? ":" : "") print "" } } The first field in each entry of the password file is the user's login name, and the fields are seperated by colons. Each record defines a subarray (*note Arrays of Arrays::), with each field as an element in the subarray. Running the program produces the following output: $ gawk -vPOS=1 -F: -f sort.awk /etc/passwd -| adm:x:3:4:adm:/var/adm:/sbin/nologin -| apache:x:48:48:Apache:/var/www:/sbin/nologin -| avahi:x:70:70:Avahi daemon:/:/sbin/nologin ... The comparison should normally always return the same value when given a specific pair of array elements as its arguments. If inconsistent results are returned then the order is undefined. This behavior can be exploited to introduce random order into otherwise seemingly ordered data: function cmp_randomize(i1, v1, i2, v2) { # random order return (2 - 4 * rand()) } As mentioned above, the order of the indices is arbitrary if two elements compare equal. This is usually not a problem, but letting the tied elements come out in arbitrary order can be an issue, especially when comparing item values. The partial ordering of the equal elements may change during the next loop traversal, if other elements are added or removed from the array. One way to resolve ties when comparing elements with otherwise equal values is to include the indices in the comparison rules. Note that doing this may make the loop traversal less efficient, so consider it only if necessary. The following comparison functions force a deterministic order, and are based on the fact that the indices of two elements are never equal: function cmp_numeric(i1, v1, i2, v2) { # numerical value (and index) comparison, descending order return (v1 != v2) ? (v2 - v1) : (i2 - i1) } function cmp_string(i1, v1, i2, v2) { # string value (and index) comparison, descending order v1 = v1 i1 v2 = v2 i2 return (v1 > v2) ? -1 : (v1 != v2) } A custom comparison function can often simplify ordered loop traversal, and the sky is really the limit when it comes to designing such a function. When string comparisons are made during a sort, either for element values where one or both aren't numbers, or for element indices handled as strings, the value of `IGNORECASE' (*note Built-in Variables::) controls whether the comparisons treat corresponding uppercase and lowercase letters as equivalent or distinct. Another point to keep in mind is that in the case of subarrays the element values can themselves be arrays; a production comparison function should use the `isarray()' function (*note Type Functions::), to check for this, and choose a defined sorting order for subarrays. All sorting based on `PROCINFO["sorted_in"]' is disabled in POSIX mode, since the `PROCINFO' array is not special in that case. As a side note, sorting the array indices before traversing the array has been reported to add 15% to 20% overhead to the execution time of `awk' programs. For this reason, sorted array traversal is not the default. File: gawk.info, Node: Controlling Scanning, Prev: Controlling Scanning With A Function, Up: Controlling Array Traversal 11.2.1.2 Controlling Array Scanning Order ......................................... As described in *note Controlling Scanning With A Function::, you can provide the name of a function as the value of `PROCINFO["sorted_in"]' to specify custom sorting criteria. Often, though, you may wish to do something simple, such as "sort based on comparing the indices in ascending order," or "sort based on comparing the values in descending order." Having to write a simple comparison function for this purpose for use in all of your programs becomes tedious. For the common simple cases, `gawk' provides the option of supplying special names that do the requested sorting for you. You can think of them as "predefined" sorting functions, if you like, although the names purposely include characters that are not valid in real `awk' function names. The following special values are available: `"@ind_str_asc"' Order by indices compared as strings; this is the most basic sort. (Internally, array indices are always strings, so with `a[2*5] = 1' the index is `"10"' rather than numeric 10.) `"@ind_num_asc"' Order by indices but force them to be treated as numbers in the process. Any index with a non-numeric value will end up positioned as if it were zero. `"@val_type_asc"' Order by element values rather than indices. Ordering is by the type assigned to the element (*note Typing and Comparison::). All numeric values come before all string values, which in turn come before all subarrays. `"@val_str_asc"' Order by element values rather than by indices. Scalar values are compared as strings. Subarrays, if present, come out last. `"@val_num_asc"' Order by element values rather than by indices. Scalar values are compared as numbers. Subarrays, if present, come out last. When numeric values are equal, the string values are used to provide an ordering: this guarantees consistent results across different versions of the C `qsort()' function.(1) `"@ind_str_desc"' Reverse order from the most basic sort. `"@ind_num_desc"' Numeric indices ordered from high to low. `"@val_type_desc"' Element values, based on type, in descending order. `"@val_str_desc"' Element values, treated as strings, ordered from high to low. Subarrays, if present, come out first. `"@val_num_desc"' Element values, treated as numbers, ordered from high to low. Subarrays, if present, come out first. `"@unsorted"' Array elements are processed in arbitrary order, which is the normal `awk' behavior. You can also get the normal behavior by just deleting the `"sorted_in"' element from the `PROCINFO' array, if it previously had a value assigned to it. The array traversal order is determined before the `for' loop starts to run. Changing `PROCINFO["sorted_in"]' in the loop body will not affect the loop. For example: $ gawk 'BEGIN { > a[4] = 4 > a[3] = 3 > for (i in a) > print i, a[i] > }' -| 4 4 -| 3 3 $ gawk 'BEGIN { > PROCINFO["sorted_in"] = "@str_ind_asc" > a[4] = 4 > a[3] = 3 > for (i in a) > print i, a[i] > }' -| 3 3 -| 4 4 When sorting an array by element values, if a value happens to be a subarray then it is considered to be greater than any string or numeric value, regardless of what the subarray itself contains, and all subarrays are treated as being equal to each other. Their order relative to each other is determined by their index strings. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) When two elements compare as equal, the C `qsort()' function does not guarantee that they will maintain their original relative order after sorting. Using the string value to provide a unique ordering when the numeric values are equal ensures that `gawk' behaves consistently across different environments. File: gawk.info, Node: Array Sorting Functions, Prev: Controlling Array Traversal, Up: Array Sorting 11.2.2 Sorting Array Values and Indices with `gawk' --------------------------------------------------- In most `awk' implementations, sorting an array requires writing a `sort' function. While this can be educational for exploring different sorting algorithms, usually that's not the point of the program. `gawk' provides the built-in `asort()' and `asorti()' functions (*note String Functions::) for sorting arrays. For example: POPULATE THE ARRAY data n = asort(data) for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) DO SOMETHING WITH data[i] After the call to `asort()', the array `data' is indexed from 1 to some number N, the total number of elements in `data'. (This count is `asort()''s return value.) `data[1]' <= `data[2]' <= `data[3]', and so on. The array elements are compared as strings. An important side effect of calling `asort()' is that _the array's original indices are irrevocably lost_. As this isn't always desirable, `asort()' accepts a second argument: POPULATE THE ARRAY source n = asort(source, dest) for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) DO SOMETHING WITH dest[i] In this case, `gawk' copies the `source' array into the `dest' array and then sorts `dest', destroying its indices. However, the `source' array is not affected. `asort()' accepts a third string argument to control comparison of array elements. As with `PROCINFO["sorted_in"]', this argument may be the name of a user-defined function, or one of the predefined names that `gawk' provides (*note Controlling Scanning With A Function::). NOTE: In all cases, the sorted element values consist of the original array's element values. The ability to control comparison merely affects the way in which they are sorted. Often, what's needed is to sort on the values of the _indices_ instead of the values of the elements. To do that, use the `asorti()' function. The interface is identical to that of `asort()', except that the index values are used for sorting, and become the values of the result array: { source[$0] = some_func($0) } END { n = asorti(source, dest) for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { Work with sorted indices directly: DO SOMETHING WITH dest[i] ... Access original array via sorted indices: DO SOMETHING WITH source[dest[i]] } } Similar to `asort()', in all cases, the sorted element values consist of the original array's indices. The ability to control comparison merely affects the way in which they are sorted. Sorting the array by replacing the indices provides maximal flexibility. To traverse the elements in decreasing order, use a loop that goes from N down to 1, either over the elements or over the indices.(1) Copying array indices and elements isn't expensive in terms of memory. Internally, `gawk' maintains "reference counts" to data. For example, when `asort()' copies the first array to the second one, there is only one copy of the original array elements' data, even though both arrays use the values. Because `IGNORECASE' affects string comparisons, the value of `IGNORECASE' also affects sorting for both `asort()' and `asorti()'. Note also that the locale's sorting order does _not_ come into play; comparisons are based on character values only.(2) Caveat Emptor. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) You may also use one of the predefined sorting names that sorts in decreasing order. (2) This is true because locale-based comparison occurs only when in POSIX compatibility mode, and since `asort()' and `asorti()' are `gawk' extensions, they are not available in that case. File: gawk.info, Node: Two-way I/O, Next: TCP/IP Networking, Prev: Array Sorting, Up: Advanced Features 11.3 Two-Way Communications with Another Process ================================================ From: brennan@whidbey.com (Mike Brennan) Newsgroups: comp.lang.awk Subject: Re: Learn the SECRET to Attract Women Easily Date: 4 Aug 1997 17:34:46 GMT Message-ID: <5s53rm$eca@news.whidbey.com> On 3 Aug 1997 13:17:43 GMT, Want More Dates??? <tracy78@kilgrona.com> wrote: >Learn the SECRET to Attract Women Easily > >The SCENT(tm) Pheromone Sex Attractant For Men to Attract Women The scent of awk programmers is a lot more attractive to women than the scent of perl programmers. -- Mike Brennan It is often useful to be able to send data to a separate program for processing and then read the result. This can always be done with temporary files: # Write the data for processing tempfile = ("mydata." PROCINFO["pid"]) while (NOT DONE WITH DATA) print DATA | ("subprogram > " tempfile) close("subprogram > " tempfile) # Read the results, remove tempfile when done while ((getline newdata < tempfile) > 0) PROCESS newdata APPROPRIATELY close(tempfile) system("rm " tempfile) This works, but not elegantly. Among other things, it requires that the program be run in a directory that cannot be shared among users; for example, `/tmp' will not do, as another user might happen to be using a temporary file with the same name. However, with `gawk', it is possible to open a _two-way_ pipe to another process. The second process is termed a "coprocess", since it runs in parallel with `gawk'. The two-way connection is created using the `|&' operator (borrowed from the Korn shell, `ksh'):(1) do { print DATA |& "subprogram" "subprogram" |& getline results } while (DATA LEFT TO PROCESS) close("subprogram") The first time an I/O operation is executed using the `|&' operator, `gawk' creates a two-way pipeline to a child process that runs the other program. Output created with `print' or `printf' is written to the program's standard input, and output from the program's standard output can be read by the `gawk' program using `getline'. As is the case with processes started by `|', the subprogram can be any program, or pipeline of programs, that can be started by the shell. There are some cautionary items to be aware of: * As the code inside `gawk' currently stands, the coprocess's standard error goes to the same place that the parent `gawk''s standard error goes. It is not possible to read the child's standard error separately. * I/O buffering may be a problem. `gawk' automatically flushes all output down the pipe to the coprocess. However, if the coprocess does not flush its output, `gawk' may hang when doing a `getline' in order to read the coprocess's results. This could lead to a situation known as "deadlock", where each process is waiting for the other one to do something. It is possible to close just one end of the two-way pipe to a coprocess, by supplying a second argument to the `close()' function of either `"to"' or `"from"' (*note Close Files And Pipes::). These strings tell `gawk' to close the end of the pipe that sends data to the coprocess or the end that reads from it, respectively. This is particularly necessary in order to use the system `sort' utility as part of a coprocess; `sort' must read _all_ of its input data before it can produce any output. The `sort' program does not receive an end-of-file indication until `gawk' closes the write end of the pipe. When you have finished writing data to the `sort' utility, you can close the `"to"' end of the pipe, and then start reading sorted data via `getline'. For example: BEGIN { command = "LC_ALL=C sort" n = split("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz", a, "") for (i = n; i > 0; i--) print a[i] |& command close(command, "to") while ((command |& getline line) > 0) print "got", line close(command) } This program writes the letters of the alphabet in reverse order, one per line, down the two-way pipe to `sort'. It then closes the write end of the pipe, so that `sort' receives an end-of-file indication. This causes `sort' to sort the data and write the sorted data back to the `gawk' program. Once all of the data has been read, `gawk' terminates the coprocess and exits. As a side note, the assignment `LC_ALL=C' in the `sort' command ensures traditional Unix (ASCII) sorting from `sort'. You may also use pseudo-ttys (ptys) for two-way communication instead of pipes, if your system supports them. This is done on a per-command basis, by setting a special element in the `PROCINFO' array (*note Auto-set::), like so: command = "sort -nr" # command, save in convenience variable PROCINFO[command, "pty"] = 1 # update PROCINFO print ... |& command # start two-way pipe ... Using ptys avoids the buffer deadlock issues described earlier, at some loss in performance. If your system does not have ptys, or if all the system's ptys are in use, `gawk' automatically falls back to using regular pipes. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This is very different from the same operator in the C shell. File: gawk.info, Node: TCP/IP Networking, Next: Profiling, Prev: Two-way I/O, Up: Advanced Features 11.4 Using `gawk' for Network Programming ========================================= `EMISTERED': A host is a host from coast to coast, and no-one can talk to host that's close, unless the host that isn't close is busy hung or dead. In addition to being able to open a two-way pipeline to a coprocess on the same system (*note Two-way I/O::), it is possible to make a two-way connection to another process on another system across an IP network connection. You can think of this as just a _very long_ two-way pipeline to a coprocess. The way `gawk' decides that you want to use TCP/IP networking is by recognizing special file names that begin with one of `/inet/', `/inet4/' or `/inet6'. The full syntax of the special file name is `/NET-TYPE/PROTOCOL/LOCAL-PORT/REMOTE-HOST/REMOTE-PORT'. The components are: NET-TYPE Specifies the kind of Internet connection to make. Use `/inet4/' to force IPv4, and `/inet6/' to force IPv6. Plain `/inet/' (which used to be the only option) uses the system default, most likely IPv4. PROTOCOL The protocol to use over IP. This must be either `tcp', or `udp', for a TCP or UDP IP connection, respectively. The use of TCP is recommended for most applications. LOCAL-PORT The local TCP or UDP port number to use. Use a port number of `0' when you want the system to pick a port. This is what you should do when writing a TCP or UDP client. You may also use a well-known service name, such as `smtp' or `http', in which case `gawk' attempts to determine the predefined port number using the C `getaddrinfo()' function. REMOTE-HOST The IP address or fully-qualified domain name of the Internet host to which you want to connect. REMOTE-PORT The TCP or UDP port number to use on the given REMOTE-HOST. Again, use `0' if you don't care, or else a well-known service name. NOTE: Failure in opening a two-way socket will result in a non-fatal error being returned to the calling code. The value of `ERRNO' indicates the error (*note Auto-set::). Consider the following very simple example: BEGIN { Service = "/inet/tcp/0/localhost/daytime" Service |& getline print $0 close(Service) } This program reads the current date and time from the local system's TCP `daytime' server. It then prints the results and closes the connection. Because this topic is extensive, the use of `gawk' for TCP/IP programming is documented separately. See *note (General Introduction)Top:: gawkinet, TCP/IP Internetworking with `gawk', for a much more complete introduction and discussion, as well as extensive examples. File: gawk.info, Node: Profiling, Prev: TCP/IP Networking, Up: Advanced Features 11.5 Profiling Your `awk' Programs ================================== You may produce execution traces of your `awk' programs. This is done with a specially compiled version of `gawk', called `pgawk' ("profiling `gawk'"). `pgawk' is identical in every way to `gawk', except that when it has finished running, it creates a profile of your program in a file named `awkprof.out'. Because it is profiling, it also executes up to 45% slower than `gawk' normally does. As shown in the following example, the `--profile' option can be used to change the name of the file where `pgawk' will write the profile: pgawk --profile=myprog.prof -f myprog.awk data1 data2 In the above example, `pgawk' places the profile in `myprog.prof' instead of in `awkprof.out'. Here is a sample session showing a simple `awk' program, its input data, and the results from running `pgawk'. First, the `awk' program: BEGIN { print "First BEGIN rule" } END { print "First END rule" } /foo/ { print "matched /foo/, gosh" for (i = 1; i <= 3; i++) sing() } { if (/foo/) print "if is true" else print "else is true" } BEGIN { print "Second BEGIN rule" } END { print "Second END rule" } function sing( dummy) { print "I gotta be me!" } Following is the input data: foo bar baz foo junk Here is the `awkprof.out' that results from running `pgawk' on this program and data (this example also illustrates that `awk' programmers sometimes have to work late): # gawk profile, created Sun Aug 13 00:00:15 2000 # BEGIN block(s) BEGIN { 1 print "First BEGIN rule" 1 print "Second BEGIN rule" } # Rule(s) 5 /foo/ { # 2 2 print "matched /foo/, gosh" 6 for (i = 1; i <= 3; i++) { 6 sing() } } 5 { 5 if (/foo/) { # 2 2 print "if is true" 3 } else { 3 print "else is true" } } # END block(s) END { 1 print "First END rule" 1 print "Second END rule" } # Functions, listed alphabetically 6 function sing(dummy) { 6 print "I gotta be me!" } This example illustrates many of the basic features of profiling output. They are as follows: * The program is printed in the order `BEGIN' rule, `BEGINFILE' rule, pattern/action rules, `ENDFILE' rule, `END' rule and functions, listed alphabetically. Multiple `BEGIN' and `END' rules are merged together, as are multiple `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE' rules. * Pattern-action rules have two counts. The first count, to the left of the rule, shows how many times the rule's pattern was _tested_. The second count, to the right of the rule's opening left brace in a comment, shows how many times the rule's action was _executed_. The difference between the two indicates how many times the rule's pattern evaluated to false. * Similarly, the count for an `if'-`else' statement shows how many times the condition was tested. To the right of the opening left brace for the `if''s body is a count showing how many times the condition was true. The count for the `else' indicates how many times the test failed. * The count for a loop header (such as `for' or `while') shows how many times the loop test was executed. (Because of this, you can't just look at the count on the first statement in a rule to determine how many times the rule was executed. If the first statement is a loop, the count is misleading.) * For user-defined functions, the count next to the `function' keyword indicates how many times the function was called. The counts next to the statements in the body show how many times those statements were executed. * The layout uses "K&R" style with TABs. Braces are used everywhere, even when the body of an `if', `else', or loop is only a single statement. * Parentheses are used only where needed, as indicated by the structure of the program and the precedence rules. For example, `(3 + 5) * 4' means add three plus five, then multiply the total by four. However, `3 + 5 * 4' has no parentheses, and means `3 + (5 * 4)'. * Parentheses are used around the arguments to `print' and `printf' only when the `print' or `printf' statement is followed by a redirection. Similarly, if the target of a redirection isn't a scalar, it gets parenthesized. * `pgawk' supplies leading comments in front of the `BEGIN' and `END' rules, the pattern/action rules, and the functions. The profiled version of your program may not look exactly like what you typed when you wrote it. This is because `pgawk' creates the profiled version by "pretty printing" its internal representation of the program. The advantage to this is that `pgawk' can produce a standard representation. The disadvantage is that all source-code comments are lost, as are the distinctions among multiple `BEGIN', `END', `BEGINFILE', and `ENDFILE' rules. Also, things such as: /foo/ come out as: /foo/ { print $0 } which is correct, but possibly surprising. Besides creating profiles when a program has completed, `pgawk' can produce a profile while it is running. This is useful if your `awk' program goes into an infinite loop and you want to see what has been executed. To use this feature, run `pgawk' in the background: $ pgawk -f myprog & [1] 13992 The shell prints a job number and process ID number; in this case, 13992. Use the `kill' command to send the `USR1' signal to `pgawk': $ kill -USR1 13992 As usual, the profiled version of the program is written to `awkprof.out', or to a different file if you use the `--profile' option. Along with the regular profile, as shown earlier, the profile includes a trace of any active functions: # Function Call Stack: # 3. baz # 2. bar # 1. foo # -- main -- You may send `pgawk' the `USR1' signal as many times as you like. Each time, the profile and function call trace are appended to the output profile file. If you use the `HUP' signal instead of the `USR1' signal, `pgawk' produces the profile and the function call trace and then exits. When `pgawk' runs on MS-Windows systems, it uses the `INT' and `QUIT' signals for producing the profile and, in the case of the `INT' signal, `pgawk' exits. This is because these systems don't support the `kill' command, so the only signals you can deliver to a program are those generated by the keyboard. The `INT' signal is generated by the `Ctrl-<C>' or `Ctrl-<BREAK>' key, while the `QUIT' signal is generated by the `Ctrl-<\>' key. Finally, regular `gawk' also accepts the `--profile' option. When called this way, `gawk' "pretty prints" the program into `awkprof.out', without any execution counts. File: gawk.info, Node: Library Functions, Next: Sample Programs, Prev: Advanced Features, Up: Top 12 A Library of `awk' Functions ******************************* *note User-defined::, describes how to write your own `awk' functions. Writing functions is important, because it allows you to encapsulate algorithms and program tasks in a single place. It simplifies programming, making program development more manageable, and making programs more readable. One valuable way to learn a new programming language is to _read_ programs in that language. To that end, this major node and *note Sample Programs::, provide a good-sized body of code for you to read, and hopefully, to learn from. This major node presents a library of useful `awk' functions. Many of the sample programs presented later in this Info file use these functions. The functions are presented here in a progression from simple to complex. *note Extract Program::, presents a program that you can use to extract the source code for these example library functions and programs from the Texinfo source for this Info file. (This has already been done as part of the `gawk' distribution.) If you have written one or more useful, general-purpose `awk' functions and would like to contribute them to the `awk' user community, see *note How To Contribute::, for more information. The programs in this major node and in *note Sample Programs::, freely use features that are `gawk'-specific. Rewriting these programs for different implementations of `awk' is pretty straightforward. * Diagnostic error messages are sent to `/dev/stderr'. Use `| "cat 1>&2"' instead of `> "/dev/stderr"' if your system does not have a `/dev/stderr', or if you cannot use `gawk'. * A number of programs use `nextfile' (*note Nextfile Statement::) to skip any remaining input in the input file. * Finally, some of the programs choose to ignore upper- and lowercase distinctions in their input. They do so by assigning one to `IGNORECASE'. You can achieve almost the same effect(1) by adding the following rule to the beginning of the program: # ignore case { $0 = tolower($0) } Also, verify that all regexp and string constants used in comparisons use only lowercase letters. * Menu: * Library Names:: How to best name private global variables in library functions. * General Functions:: Functions that are of general use. * Data File Management:: Functions for managing command-line data files. * Getopt Function:: A function for processing command-line arguments. * Passwd Functions:: Functions for getting user information. * Group Functions:: Functions for getting group information. * Walking Arrays:: A function to walk arrays of arrays. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The effects are not identical. Output of the transformed record will be in all lowercase, while `IGNORECASE' preserves the original contents of the input record. File: gawk.info, Node: Library Names, Next: General Functions, Up: Library Functions 12.1 Naming Library Function Global Variables ============================================= Due to the way the `awk' language evolved, variables are either "global" (usable by the entire program) or "local" (usable just by a specific function). There is no intermediate state analogous to `static' variables in C. Library functions often need to have global variables that they can use to preserve state information between calls to the function--for example, `getopt()''s variable `_opti' (*note Getopt Function::). Such variables are called "private", since the only functions that need to use them are the ones in the library. When writing a library function, you should try to choose names for your private variables that will not conflict with any variables used by either another library function or a user's main program. For example, a name like `i' or `j' is not a good choice, because user programs often use variable names like these for their own purposes. The example programs shown in this major node all start the names of their private variables with an underscore (`_'). Users generally don't use leading underscores in their variable names, so this convention immediately decreases the chances that the variable name will be accidentally shared with the user's program. In addition, several of the library functions use a prefix that helps indicate what function or set of functions use the variables--for example, `_pw_byname' in the user database routines (*note Passwd Functions::). This convention is recommended, since it even further decreases the chance of inadvertent conflict among variable names. Note that this convention is used equally well for variable names and for private function names.(1) As a final note on variable naming, if a function makes global variables available for use by a main program, it is a good convention to start that variable's name with a capital letter--for example, `getopt()''s `Opterr' and `Optind' variables (*note Getopt Function::). The leading capital letter indicates that it is global, while the fact that the variable name is not all capital letters indicates that the variable is not one of `awk''s built-in variables, such as `FS'. It is also important that _all_ variables in library functions that do not need to save state are, in fact, declared local.(2) If this is not done, the variable could accidentally be used in the user's program, leading to bugs that are very difficult to track down: function lib_func(x, y, l1, l2) { ... USE VARIABLE some_var # some_var should be local ... # but is not by oversight } A different convention, common in the Tcl community, is to use a single associative array to hold the values needed by the library function(s), or "package." This significantly decreases the number of actual global names in use. For example, the functions described in *note Passwd Functions::, might have used array elements `PW_data["inited"]', `PW_data["total"]', `PW_data["count"]', and `PW_data["awklib"]', instead of `_pw_inited', `_pw_awklib', `_pw_total', and `_pw_count'. The conventions presented in this minor node are exactly that: conventions. You are not required to write your programs this way--we merely recommend that you do so. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) While all the library routines could have been rewritten to use this convention, this was not done, in order to show how our own `awk' programming style has evolved and to provide some basis for this discussion. (2) `gawk''s `--dump-variables' command-line option is useful for verifying this. File: gawk.info, Node: General Functions, Next: Data File Management, Prev: Library Names, Up: Library Functions 12.2 General Programming ======================== This minor node presents a number of functions that are of general programming use. * Menu: * Strtonum Function:: A replacement for the built-in `strtonum()' function. * Assert Function:: A function for assertions in `awk' programs. * Round Function:: A function for rounding if `sprintf()' does not do it correctly. * Cliff Random Function:: The Cliff Random Number Generator. * Ordinal Functions:: Functions for using characters as numbers and vice versa. * Join Function:: A function to join an array into a string. * Gettimeofday Function:: A function to get formatted times. File: gawk.info, Node: Strtonum Function, Next: Assert Function, Up: General Functions 12.2.1 Converting Strings To Numbers ------------------------------------ The `strtonum()' function (*note String Functions::) is a `gawk' extension. The following function provides an implementation for other versions of `awk': # mystrtonum --- convert string to number function mystrtonum(str, ret, chars, n, i, k, c) { if (str ~ /^0[0-7]*$/) { # octal n = length(str) ret = 0 for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { c = substr(str, i, 1) if ((k = index("01234567", c)) > 0) k-- # adjust for 1-basing in awk ret = ret * 8 + k } } else if (str ~ /^0[xX][[:xdigit:]]+/) { # hexadecimal str = substr(str, 3) # lop off leading 0x n = length(str) ret = 0 for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { c = substr(str, i, 1) c = tolower(c) if ((k = index("0123456789", c)) > 0) k-- # adjust for 1-basing in awk else if ((k = index("abcdef", c)) > 0) k += 9 ret = ret * 16 + k } } else if (str ~ \ /^[-+]?([0-9]+([.][0-9]*([Ee][0-9]+)?)?|([.][0-9]+([Ee][-+]?[0-9]+)?))$/) { # decimal number, possibly floating point ret = str + 0 } else ret = "NOT-A-NUMBER" return ret } # BEGIN { # gawk test harness # a[1] = "25" # a[2] = ".31" # a[3] = "0123" # a[4] = "0xdeadBEEF" # a[5] = "123.45" # a[6] = "1.e3" # a[7] = "1.32" # a[7] = "1.32E2" # # for (i = 1; i in a; i++) # print a[i], strtonum(a[i]), mystrtonum(a[i]) # } The function first looks for C-style octal numbers (base 8). If the input string matches a regular expression describing octal numbers, then `mystrtonum()' loops through each character in the string. It sets `k' to the index in `"01234567"' of the current octal digit. Since the return value is one-based, the `k--' adjusts `k' so it can be used in computing the return value. Similar logic applies to the code that checks for and converts a hexadecimal value, which starts with `0x' or `0X'. The use of `tolower()' simplifies the computation for finding the correct numeric value for each hexadecimal digit. Finally, if the string matches the (rather complicated) regexp for a regular decimal integer or floating-point number, the computation `ret = str + 0' lets `awk' convert the value to a number. A commented-out test program is included, so that the function can be tested with `gawk' and the results compared to the built-in `strtonum()' function. File: gawk.info, Node: Assert Function, Next: Round Function, Prev: Strtonum Function, Up: General Functions 12.2.2 Assertions ----------------- When writing large programs, it is often useful to know that a condition or set of conditions is true. Before proceeding with a particular computation, you make a statement about what you believe to be the case. Such a statement is known as an "assertion". The C language provides an `<assert.h>' header file and corresponding `assert()' macro that the programmer can use to make assertions. If an assertion fails, the `assert()' macro arranges to print a diagnostic message describing the condition that should have been true but was not, and then it kills the program. In C, using `assert()' looks this: #include <assert.h> int myfunc(int a, double b) { assert(a <= 5 && b >= 17.1); ... } If the assertion fails, the program prints a message similar to this: prog.c:5: assertion failed: a <= 5 && b >= 17.1 The C language makes it possible to turn the condition into a string for use in printing the diagnostic message. This is not possible in `awk', so this `assert()' function also requires a string version of the condition that is being tested. Following is the function: # assert --- assert that a condition is true. Otherwise exit. function assert(condition, string) { if (! condition) { printf("%s:%d: assertion failed: %s\n", FILENAME, FNR, string) > "/dev/stderr" _assert_exit = 1 exit 1 } } END { if (_assert_exit) exit 1 } The `assert()' function tests the `condition' parameter. If it is false, it prints a message to standard error, using the `string' parameter to describe the failed condition. It then sets the variable `_assert_exit' to one and executes the `exit' statement. The `exit' statement jumps to the `END' rule. If the `END' rules finds `_assert_exit' to be true, it exits immediately. The purpose of the test in the `END' rule is to keep any other `END' rules from running. When an assertion fails, the program should exit immediately. If no assertions fail, then `_assert_exit' is still false when the `END' rule is run normally, and the rest of the program's `END' rules execute. For all of this to work correctly, `assert.awk' must be the first source file read by `awk'. The function can be used in a program in the following way: function myfunc(a, b) { assert(a <= 5 && b >= 17.1, "a <= 5 && b >= 17.1") ... } If the assertion fails, you see a message similar to the following: mydata:1357: assertion failed: a <= 5 && b >= 17.1 There is a small problem with this version of `assert()'. An `END' rule is automatically added to the program calling `assert()'. Normally, if a program consists of just a `BEGIN' rule, the input files and/or standard input are not read. However, now that the program has an `END' rule, `awk' attempts to read the input data files or standard input (*note Using BEGIN/END::), most likely causing the program to hang as it waits for input. There is a simple workaround to this: make sure that such a `BEGIN' rule always ends with an `exit' statement. File: gawk.info, Node: Round Function, Next: Cliff Random Function, Prev: Assert Function, Up: General Functions 12.2.3 Rounding Numbers ----------------------- The way `printf' and `sprintf()' (*note Printf::) perform rounding often depends upon the system's C `sprintf()' subroutine. On many machines, `sprintf()' rounding is "unbiased," which means it doesn't always round a trailing `.5' up, contrary to naive expectations. In unbiased rounding, `.5' rounds to even, rather than always up, so 1.5 rounds to 2 but 4.5 rounds to 4. This means that if you are using a format that does rounding (e.g., `"%.0f"'), you should check what your system does. The following function does traditional rounding; it might be useful if your `awk''s `printf' does unbiased rounding: # round.awk --- do normal rounding function round(x, ival, aval, fraction) { ival = int(x) # integer part, int() truncates # see if fractional part if (ival == x) # no fraction return ival # ensure no decimals if (x < 0) { aval = -x # absolute value ival = int(aval) fraction = aval - ival if (fraction >= .5) return int(x) - 1 # -2.5 --> -3 else return int(x) # -2.3 --> -2 } else { fraction = x - ival if (fraction >= .5) return ival + 1 else return ival } } # test harness { print $0, round($0) } File: gawk.info, Node: Cliff Random Function, Next: Ordinal Functions, Prev: Round Function, Up: General Functions 12.2.4 The Cliff Random Number Generator ---------------------------------------- The Cliff random number generator (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CliffRandomNumberGenerator.html) is a very simple random number generator that "passes the noise sphere test for randomness by showing no structure." It is easily programmed, in less than 10 lines of `awk' code: # cliff_rand.awk --- generate Cliff random numbers BEGIN { _cliff_seed = 0.1 } function cliff_rand() { _cliff_seed = (100 * log(_cliff_seed)) % 1 if (_cliff_seed < 0) _cliff_seed = - _cliff_seed return _cliff_seed } This algorithm requires an initial "seed" of 0.1. Each new value uses the current seed as input for the calculation. If the built-in `rand()' function (*note Numeric Functions::) isn't random enough, you might try using this function instead. File: gawk.info, Node: Ordinal Functions, Next: Join Function, Prev: Cliff Random Function, Up: General Functions 12.2.5 Translating Between Characters and Numbers ------------------------------------------------- One commercial implementation of `awk' supplies a built-in function, `ord()', which takes a character and returns the numeric value for that character in the machine's character set. If the string passed to `ord()' has more than one character, only the first one is used. The inverse of this function is `chr()' (from the function of the same name in Pascal), which takes a number and returns the corresponding character. Both functions are written very nicely in `awk'; there is no real reason to build them into the `awk' interpreter: # ord.awk --- do ord and chr # Global identifiers: # _ord_: numerical values indexed by characters # _ord_init: function to initialize _ord_ BEGIN { _ord_init() } function _ord_init( low, high, i, t) { low = sprintf("%c", 7) # BEL is ascii 7 if (low == "\a") { # regular ascii low = 0 high = 127 } else if (sprintf("%c", 128 + 7) == "\a") { # ascii, mark parity low = 128 high = 255 } else { # ebcdic(!) low = 0 high = 255 } for (i = low; i <= high; i++) { t = sprintf("%c", i) _ord_[t] = i } } Some explanation of the numbers used by `chr' is worthwhile. The most prominent character set in use today is ASCII.(1) Although an 8-bit byte can hold 256 distinct values (from 0 to 255), ASCII only defines characters that use the values from 0 to 127.(2) In the now distant past, at least one minicomputer manufacturer used ASCII, but with mark parity, meaning that the leftmost bit in the byte is always 1. This means that on those systems, characters have numeric values from 128 to 255. Finally, large mainframe systems use the EBCDIC character set, which uses all 256 values. While there are other character sets in use on some older systems, they are not really worth worrying about: function ord(str, c) { # only first character is of interest c = substr(str, 1, 1) return _ord_[c] } function chr(c) { # force c to be numeric by adding 0 return sprintf("%c", c + 0) } #### test code #### # BEGIN \ # { # for (;;) { # printf("enter a character: ") # if (getline var <= 0) # break # printf("ord(%s) = %d\n", var, ord(var)) # } # } An obvious improvement to these functions is to move the code for the `_ord_init' function into the body of the `BEGIN' rule. It was written this way initially for ease of development. There is a "test program" in a `BEGIN' rule, to test the function. It is commented out for production use. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This is changing; many systems use Unicode, a very large character set that includes ASCII as a subset. On systems with full Unicode support, a character can occupy up to 32 bits, making simple tests such as used here prohibitively expensive. (2) ASCII has been extended in many countries to use the values from 128 to 255 for country-specific characters. If your system uses these extensions, you can simplify `_ord_init' to loop from 0 to 255. File: gawk.info, Node: Join Function, Next: Gettimeofday Function, Prev: Ordinal Functions, Up: General Functions 12.2.6 Merging an Array into a String ------------------------------------- When doing string processing, it is often useful to be able to join all the strings in an array into one long string. The following function, `join()', accomplishes this task. It is used later in several of the application programs (*note Sample Programs::). Good function design is important; this function needs to be general but it should also have a reasonable default behavior. It is called with an array as well as the beginning and ending indices of the elements in the array to be merged. This assumes that the array indices are numeric--a reasonable assumption since the array was likely created with `split()' (*note String Functions::): # join.awk --- join an array into a string function join(array, start, end, sep, result, i) { if (sep == "") sep = " " else if (sep == SUBSEP) # magic value sep = "" result = array[start] for (i = start + 1; i <= end; i++) result = result sep array[i] return result } An optional additional argument is the separator to use when joining the strings back together. If the caller supplies a nonempty value, `join()' uses it; if it is not supplied, it has a null value. In this case, `join()' uses a single space as a default separator for the strings. If the value is equal to `SUBSEP', then `join()' joins the strings with no separator between them. `SUBSEP' serves as a "magic" value to indicate that there should be no separation between the component strings.(1) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) It would be nice if `awk' had an assignment operator for concatenation. The lack of an explicit operator for concatenation makes string operations more difficult than they really need to be. File: gawk.info, Node: Gettimeofday Function, Prev: Join Function, Up: General Functions 12.2.7 Managing the Time of Day ------------------------------- The `systime()' and `strftime()' functions described in *note Time Functions::, provide the minimum functionality necessary for dealing with the time of day in human readable form. While `strftime()' is extensive, the control formats are not necessarily easy to remember or intuitively obvious when reading a program. The following function, `gettimeofday()', populates a user-supplied array with preformatted time information. It returns a string with the current time formatted in the same way as the `date' utility: # gettimeofday.awk --- get the time of day in a usable format # Returns a string in the format of output of date(1) # Populates the array argument time with individual values: # time["second"] -- seconds (0 - 59) # time["minute"] -- minutes (0 - 59) # time["hour"] -- hours (0 - 23) # time["althour"] -- hours (0 - 12) # time["monthday"] -- day of month (1 - 31) # time["month"] -- month of year (1 - 12) # time["monthname"] -- name of the month # time["shortmonth"] -- short name of the month # time["year"] -- year modulo 100 (0 - 99) # time["fullyear"] -- full year # time["weekday"] -- day of week (Sunday = 0) # time["altweekday"] -- day of week (Monday = 0) # time["dayname"] -- name of weekday # time["shortdayname"] -- short name of weekday # time["yearday"] -- day of year (0 - 365) # time["timezone"] -- abbreviation of timezone name # time["ampm"] -- AM or PM designation # time["weeknum"] -- week number, Sunday first day # time["altweeknum"] -- week number, Monday first day function gettimeofday(time, ret, now, i) { # get time once, avoids unnecessary system calls now = systime() # return date(1)-style output ret = strftime("%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Z %Y", now) # clear out target array delete time # fill in values, force numeric values to be # numeric by adding 0 time["second"] = strftime("%S", now) + 0 time["minute"] = strftime("%M", now) + 0 time["hour"] = strftime("%H", now) + 0 time["althour"] = strftime("%I", now) + 0 time["monthday"] = strftime("%d", now) + 0 time["month"] = strftime("%m", now) + 0 time["monthname"] = strftime("%B", now) time["shortmonth"] = strftime("%b", now) time["year"] = strftime("%y", now) + 0 time["fullyear"] = strftime("%Y", now) + 0 time["weekday"] = strftime("%w", now) + 0 time["altweekday"] = strftime("%u", now) + 0 time["dayname"] = strftime("%A", now) time["shortdayname"] = strftime("%a", now) time["yearday"] = strftime("%j", now) + 0 time["timezone"] = strftime("%Z", now) time["ampm"] = strftime("%p", now) time["weeknum"] = strftime("%U", now) + 0 time["altweeknum"] = strftime("%W", now) + 0 return ret } The string indices are easier to use and read than the various formats required by `strftime()'. The `alarm' program presented in *note Alarm Program::, uses this function. A more general design for the `gettimeofday()' function would have allowed the user to supply an optional timestamp value to use instead of the current time. File: gawk.info, Node: Data File Management, Next: Getopt Function, Prev: General Functions, Up: Library Functions 12.3 Data File Management ========================= This minor node presents functions that are useful for managing command-line data files. * Menu: * Filetrans Function:: A function for handling data file transitions. * Rewind Function:: A function for rereading the current file. * File Checking:: Checking that data files are readable. * Empty Files:: Checking for zero-length files. * Ignoring Assigns:: Treating assignments as file names. File: gawk.info, Node: Filetrans Function, Next: Rewind Function, Up: Data File Management 12.3.1 Noting Data File Boundaries ---------------------------------- The `BEGIN' and `END' rules are each executed exactly once at the beginning and end of your `awk' program, respectively (*note BEGIN/END::). We (the `gawk' authors) once had a user who mistakenly thought that the `BEGIN' rule is executed at the beginning of each data file and the `END' rule is executed at the end of each data file. When informed that this was not the case, the user requested that we add new special patterns to `gawk', named `BEGIN_FILE' and `END_FILE', that would have the desired behavior. He even supplied us the code to do so. Adding these special patterns to `gawk' wasn't necessary; the job can be done cleanly in `awk' itself, as illustrated by the following library program. It arranges to call two user-supplied functions, `beginfile()' and `endfile()', at the beginning and end of each data file. Besides solving the problem in only nine(!) lines of code, it does so _portably_; this works with any implementation of `awk': # transfile.awk # # Give the user a hook for filename transitions # # The user must supply functions beginfile() and endfile() # that each take the name of the file being started or # finished, respectively. FILENAME != _oldfilename \ { if (_oldfilename != "") endfile(_oldfilename) _oldfilename = FILENAME beginfile(FILENAME) } END { endfile(FILENAME) } This file must be loaded before the user's "main" program, so that the rule it supplies is executed first. This rule relies on `awk''s `FILENAME' variable that automatically changes for each new data file. The current file name is saved in a private variable, `_oldfilename'. If `FILENAME' does not equal `_oldfilename', then a new data file is being processed and it is necessary to call `endfile()' for the old file. Because `endfile()' should only be called if a file has been processed, the program first checks to make sure that `_oldfilename' is not the null string. The program then assigns the current file name to `_oldfilename' and calls `beginfile()' for the file. Because, like all `awk' variables, `_oldfilename' is initialized to the null string, this rule executes correctly even for the first data file. The program also supplies an `END' rule to do the final processing for the last file. Because this `END' rule comes before any `END' rules supplied in the "main" program, `endfile()' is called first. Once again the value of multiple `BEGIN' and `END' rules should be clear. If the same data file occurs twice in a row on the command line, then `endfile()' and `beginfile()' are not executed at the end of the first pass and at the beginning of the second pass. The following version solves the problem: # ftrans.awk --- handle data file transitions # # user supplies beginfile() and endfile() functions FNR == 1 { if (_filename_ != "") endfile(_filename_) _filename_ = FILENAME beginfile(FILENAME) } END { endfile(_filename_) } *note Wc Program::, shows how this library function can be used and how it simplifies writing the main program. Advanced Notes: So Why Does `gawk' have `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE'? ------------------------------------------------------------------ You are probably wondering, if `beginfile()' and `endfile()' functions can do the job, why does `gawk' have `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE' patterns (*note BEGINFILE/ENDFILE::)? Good question. Normally, if `awk' cannot open a file, this causes an immediate fatal error. In this case, there is no way for a user-defined function to deal with the problem, since the mechanism for calling it relies on the file being open and at the first record. Thus, the main reason for `BEGINFILE' is to give you a "hook" to catch files that cannot be processed. `ENDFILE' exists for symmetry, and because it provides an easy way to do per-file cleanup processing. File: gawk.info, Node: Rewind Function, Next: File Checking, Prev: Filetrans Function, Up: Data File Management 12.3.2 Rereading the Current File --------------------------------- Another request for a new built-in function was for a `rewind()' function that would make it possible to reread the current file. The requesting user didn't want to have to use `getline' (*note Getline::) inside a loop. However, as long as you are not in the `END' rule, it is quite easy to arrange to immediately close the current input file and then start over with it from the top. For lack of a better name, we'll call it `rewind()': # rewind.awk --- rewind the current file and start over function rewind( i) { # shift remaining arguments up for (i = ARGC; i > ARGIND; i--) ARGV[i] = ARGV[i-1] # make sure gawk knows to keep going ARGC++ # make current file next to get done ARGV[ARGIND+1] = FILENAME # do it nextfile } This code relies on the `ARGIND' variable (*note Auto-set::), which is specific to `gawk'. If you are not using `gawk', you can use ideas presented in *note Filetrans Function::, to either update `ARGIND' on your own or modify this code as appropriate. The `rewind()' function also relies on the `nextfile' keyword (*note Nextfile Statement::). File: gawk.info, Node: File Checking, Next: Empty Files, Prev: Rewind Function, Up: Data File Management 12.3.3 Checking for Readable Data Files --------------------------------------- Normally, if you give `awk' a data file that isn't readable, it stops with a fatal error. There are times when you might want to just ignore such files and keep going. You can do this by prepending the following program to your `awk' program: # readable.awk --- library file to skip over unreadable files BEGIN { for (i = 1; i < ARGC; i++) { if (ARGV[i] ~ /^[[:alpha:]_][[:alnum:]_]*=.*/ \ || ARGV[i] == "-" || ARGV[i] == "/dev/stdin") continue # assignment or standard input else if ((getline junk < ARGV[i]) < 0) # unreadable delete ARGV[i] else close(ARGV[i]) } } This works, because the `getline' won't be fatal. Removing the element from `ARGV' with `delete' skips the file (since it's no longer in the list). See also *note ARGC and ARGV::. File: gawk.info, Node: Empty Files, Next: Ignoring Assigns, Prev: File Checking, Up: Data File Management 12.3.4 Checking For Zero-length Files ------------------------------------- All known `awk' implementations silently skip over zero-length files. This is a by-product of `awk''s implicit read-a-record-and-match-against-the-rules loop: when `awk' tries to read a record from an empty file, it immediately receives an end of file indication, closes the file, and proceeds on to the next command-line data file, _without_ executing any user-level `awk' program code. Using `gawk''s `ARGIND' variable (*note Built-in Variables::), it is possible to detect when an empty data file has been skipped. Similar to the library file presented in *note Filetrans Function::, the following library file calls a function named `zerofile()' that the user must provide. The arguments passed are the file name and the position in `ARGV' where it was found: # zerofile.awk --- library file to process empty input files BEGIN { Argind = 0 } ARGIND > Argind + 1 { for (Argind++; Argind < ARGIND; Argind++) zerofile(ARGV[Argind], Argind) } ARGIND != Argind { Argind = ARGIND } END { if (ARGIND > Argind) for (Argind++; Argind <= ARGIND; Argind++) zerofile(ARGV[Argind], Argind) } The user-level variable `Argind' allows the `awk' program to track its progress through `ARGV'. Whenever the program detects that `ARGIND' is greater than `Argind + 1', it means that one or more empty files were skipped. The action then calls `zerofile()' for each such file, incrementing `Argind' along the way. The `Argind != ARGIND' rule simply keeps `Argind' up to date in the normal case. Finally, the `END' rule catches the case of any empty files at the end of the command-line arguments. Note that the test in the condition of the `for' loop uses the `<=' operator, not `<'. As an exercise, you might consider whether this same problem can be solved without relying on `gawk''s `ARGIND' variable. As a second exercise, revise this code to handle the case where an intervening value in `ARGV' is a variable assignment. File: gawk.info, Node: Ignoring Assigns, Prev: Empty Files, Up: Data File Management 12.3.5 Treating Assignments as File Names ----------------------------------------- Occasionally, you might not want `awk' to process command-line variable assignments (*note Assignment Options::). In particular, if you have a file name that contain an `=' character, `awk' treats the file name as an assignment, and does not process it. Some users have suggested an additional command-line option for `gawk' to disable command-line assignments. However, some simple programming with a library file does the trick: # noassign.awk --- library file to avoid the need for a # special option that disables command-line assignments function disable_assigns(argc, argv, i) { for (i = 1; i < argc; i++) if (argv[i] ~ /^[[:alpha:]_][[:alnum:]_]*=.*/) argv[i] = ("./" argv[i]) } BEGIN { if (No_command_assign) disable_assigns(ARGC, ARGV) } You then run your program this way: awk -v No_command_assign=1 -f noassign.awk -f yourprog.awk * The function works by looping through the arguments. It prepends `./' to any argument that matches the form of a variable assignment, turning that argument into a file name. The use of `No_command_assign' allows you to disable command-line assignments at invocation time, by giving the variable a true value. When not set, it is initially zero (i.e., false), so the command-line arguments are left alone. File: gawk.info, Node: Getopt Function, Next: Passwd Functions, Prev: Data File Management, Up: Library Functions 12.4 Processing Command-Line Options ==================================== Most utilities on POSIX compatible systems take options on the command line that can be used to change the way a program behaves. `awk' is an example of such a program (*note Options::). Often, options take "arguments"; i.e., data that the program needs to correctly obey the command-line option. For example, `awk''s `-F' option requires a string to use as the field separator. The first occurrence on the command line of either `--' or a string that does not begin with `-' ends the options. Modern Unix systems provide a C function named `getopt()' for processing command-line arguments. The programmer provides a string describing the one-letter options. If an option requires an argument, it is followed in the string with a colon. `getopt()' is also passed the count and values of the command-line arguments and is called in a loop. `getopt()' processes the command-line arguments for option letters. Each time around the loop, it returns a single character representing the next option letter that it finds, or `?' if it finds an invalid option. When it returns -1, there are no options left on the command line. When using `getopt()', options that do not take arguments can be grouped together. Furthermore, options that take arguments require that the argument be present. The argument can immediately follow the option letter, or it can be a separate command-line argument. Given a hypothetical program that takes three command-line options, `-a', `-b', and `-c', where `-b' requires an argument, all of the following are valid ways of invoking the program: prog -a -b foo -c data1 data2 data3 prog -ac -bfoo -- data1 data2 data3 prog -acbfoo data1 data2 data3 Notice that when the argument is grouped with its option, the rest of the argument is considered to be the option's argument. In this example, `-acbfoo' indicates that all of the `-a', `-b', and `-c' options were supplied, and that `foo' is the argument to the `-b' option. `getopt()' provides four external variables that the programmer can use: `optind' The index in the argument value array (`argv') where the first nonoption command-line argument can be found. `optarg' The string value of the argument to an option. `opterr' Usually `getopt()' prints an error message when it finds an invalid option. Setting `opterr' to zero disables this feature. (An application might want to print its own error message.) `optopt' The letter representing the command-line option. The following C fragment shows how `getopt()' might process command-line arguments for `awk': int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { ... /* print our own message */ opterr = 0; while ((c = getopt(argc, argv, "v:f:F:W:")) != -1) { switch (c) { case 'f': /* file */ ... break; case 'F': /* field separator */ ... break; case 'v': /* variable assignment */ ... break; case 'W': /* extension */ ... break; case '?': default: usage(); break; } } ... } As a side point, `gawk' actually uses the GNU `getopt_long()' function to process both normal and GNU-style long options (*note Options::). The abstraction provided by `getopt()' is very useful and is quite handy in `awk' programs as well. Following is an `awk' version of `getopt()'. This function highlights one of the greatest weaknesses in `awk', which is that it is very poor at manipulating single characters. Repeated calls to `substr()' are necessary for accessing individual characters (*note String Functions::).(1) The discussion that follows walks through the code a bit at a time: # getopt.awk --- Do C library getopt(3) function in awk # External variables: # Optind -- index in ARGV of first nonoption argument # Optarg -- string value of argument to current option # Opterr -- if nonzero, print our own diagnostic # Optopt -- current option letter # Returns: # -1 at end of options # "?" for unrecognized option # <c> a character representing the current option # Private Data: # _opti -- index in multi-flag option, e.g., -abc The function starts out with comments presenting a list of the global variables it uses, what the return values are, what they mean, and any global variables that are "private" to this library function. Such documentation is essential for any program, and particularly for library functions. The `getopt()' function first checks that it was indeed called with a string of options (the `options' parameter). If `options' has a zero length, `getopt()' immediately returns -1: function getopt(argc, argv, options, thisopt, i) { if (length(options) == 0) # no options given return -1 if (argv[Optind] == "--") { # all done Optind++ _opti = 0 return -1 } else if (argv[Optind] !~ /^-[^:[:space:]]/) { _opti = 0 return -1 } The next thing to check for is the end of the options. A `--' ends the command-line options, as does any command-line argument that does not begin with a `-'. `Optind' is used to step through the array of command-line arguments; it retains its value across calls to `getopt()', because it is a global variable. The regular expression that is used, `/^-[^:[:space:]/', checks for a `-' followed by anything that is not whitespace and not a colon. If the current command-line argument does not match this pattern, it is not an option, and it ends option processing. Continuing on: if (_opti == 0) _opti = 2 thisopt = substr(argv[Optind], _opti, 1) Optopt = thisopt i = index(options, thisopt) if (i == 0) { if (Opterr) printf("%c -- invalid option\n", thisopt) > "/dev/stderr" if (_opti >= length(argv[Optind])) { Optind++ _opti = 0 } else _opti++ return "?" } The `_opti' variable tracks the position in the current command-line argument (`argv[Optind]'). If multiple options are grouped together with one `-' (e.g., `-abx'), it is necessary to return them to the user one at a time. If `_opti' is equal to zero, it is set to two, which is the index in the string of the next character to look at (we skip the `-', which is at position one). The variable `thisopt' holds the character, obtained with `substr()'. It is saved in `Optopt' for the main program to use. If `thisopt' is not in the `options' string, then it is an invalid option. If `Opterr' is nonzero, `getopt()' prints an error message on the standard error that is similar to the message from the C version of `getopt()'. Because the option is invalid, it is necessary to skip it and move on to the next option character. If `_opti' is greater than or equal to the length of the current command-line argument, it is necessary to move on to the next argument, so `Optind' is incremented and `_opti' is reset to zero. Otherwise, `Optind' is left alone and `_opti' is merely incremented. In any case, because the option is invalid, `getopt()' returns `"?"'. The main program can examine `Optopt' if it needs to know what the invalid option letter actually is. Continuing on: if (substr(options, i + 1, 1) == ":") { # get option argument if (length(substr(argv[Optind], _opti + 1)) > 0) Optarg = substr(argv[Optind], _opti + 1) else Optarg = argv[++Optind] _opti = 0 } else Optarg = "" If the option requires an argument, the option letter is followed by a colon in the `options' string. If there are remaining characters in the current command-line argument (`argv[Optind]'), then the rest of that string is assigned to `Optarg'. Otherwise, the next command-line argument is used (`-xFOO' versus `-x FOO'). In either case, `_opti' is reset to zero, because there are no more characters left to examine in the current command-line argument. Continuing: if (_opti == 0 || _opti >= length(argv[Optind])) { Optind++ _opti = 0 } else _opti++ return thisopt } Finally, if `_opti' is either zero or greater than the length of the current command-line argument, it means this element in `argv' is through being processed, so `Optind' is incremented to point to the next element in `argv'. If neither condition is true, then only `_opti' is incremented, so that the next option letter can be processed on the next call to `getopt()'. The `BEGIN' rule initializes both `Opterr' and `Optind' to one. `Opterr' is set to one, since the default behavior is for `getopt()' to print a diagnostic message upon seeing an invalid option. `Optind' is set to one, since there's no reason to look at the program name, which is in `ARGV[0]': BEGIN { Opterr = 1 # default is to diagnose Optind = 1 # skip ARGV[0] # test program if (_getopt_test) { while ((_go_c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "ab:cd")) != -1) printf("c = <%c>, optarg = <%s>\n", _go_c, Optarg) printf("non-option arguments:\n") for (; Optind < ARGC; Optind++) printf("\tARGV[%d] = <%s>\n", Optind, ARGV[Optind]) } } The rest of the `BEGIN' rule is a simple test program. Here is the result of two sample runs of the test program: $ awk -f getopt.awk -v _getopt_test=1 -- -a -cbARG bax -x -| c = <a>, optarg = <> -| c = <c>, optarg = <> -| c = <b>, optarg = <ARG> -| non-option arguments: -| ARGV[3] = <bax> -| ARGV[4] = <-x> $ awk -f getopt.awk -v _getopt_test=1 -- -a -x -- xyz abc -| c = <a>, optarg = <> error--> x -- invalid option -| c = <?>, optarg = <> -| non-option arguments: -| ARGV[4] = <xyz> -| ARGV[5] = <abc> In both runs, the first `--' terminates the arguments to `awk', so that it does not try to interpret the `-a', etc., as its own options. NOTE: After `getopt()' is through, it is the responsibility of the user level code to clear out all the elements of `ARGV' from 1 to `Optind', so that `awk' does not try to process the command-line options as file names. Several of the sample programs presented in *note Sample Programs::, use `getopt()' to process their arguments. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This function was written before `gawk' acquired the ability to split strings into single characters using `""' as the separator. We have left it alone, since using `substr()' is more portable. File: gawk.info, Node: Passwd Functions, Next: Group Functions, Prev: Getopt Function, Up: Library Functions 12.5 Reading the User Database ============================== The `PROCINFO' array (*note Built-in Variables::) provides access to the current user's real and effective user and group ID numbers, and if available, the user's supplementary group set. However, because these are numbers, they do not provide very useful information to the average user. There needs to be some way to find the user information associated with the user and group ID numbers. This minor node presents a suite of functions for retrieving information from the user database. *Note Group Functions::, for a similar suite that retrieves information from the group database. The POSIX standard does not define the file where user information is kept. Instead, it provides the `<pwd.h>' header file and several C language subroutines for obtaining user information. The primary function is `getpwent()', for "get password entry." The "password" comes from the original user database file, `/etc/passwd', which stores user information, along with the encrypted passwords (hence the name). While an `awk' program could simply read `/etc/passwd' directly, this file may not contain complete information about the system's set of users.(1) To be sure you are able to produce a readable and complete version of the user database, it is necessary to write a small C program that calls `getpwent()'. `getpwent()' is defined as returning a pointer to a `struct passwd'. Each time it is called, it returns the next entry in the database. When there are no more entries, it returns `NULL', the null pointer. When this happens, the C program should call `endpwent()' to close the database. Following is `pwcat', a C program that "cats" the password database: /* * pwcat.c * * Generate a printable version of the password database */ #include <stdio.h> #include <pwd.h> int main(int argc, char **argv) { struct passwd *p; while ((p = getpwent()) != NULL) printf("%s:%s:%ld:%ld:%s:%s:%s\n", p->pw_name, p->pw_passwd, (long) p->pw_uid, (long) p->pw_gid, p->pw_gecos, p->pw_dir, p->pw_shell); endpwent(); return 0; } If you don't understand C, don't worry about it. The output from `pwcat' is the user database, in the traditional `/etc/passwd' format of colon-separated fields. The fields are: Login name The user's login name. Encrypted password The user's encrypted password. This may not be available on some systems. User-ID The user's numeric user ID number. (On some systems it's a C `long', and not an `int'. Thus we cast it to `long' for all cases.) Group-ID The user's numeric group ID number. (Similar comments about `long' vs. `int' apply here.) Full name The user's full name, and perhaps other information associated with the user. Home directory The user's login (or "home") directory (familiar to shell programmers as `$HOME'). Login shell The program that is run when the user logs in. This is usually a shell, such as Bash. A few lines representative of `pwcat''s output are as follows: $ pwcat -| root:3Ov02d5VaUPB6:0:1:Operator:/:/bin/sh -| nobody:*:65534:65534::/: -| daemon:*:1:1::/: -| sys:*:2:2::/:/bin/csh -| bin:*:3:3::/bin: -| arnold:xyzzy:2076:10:Arnold Robbins:/home/arnold:/bin/sh -| miriam:yxaay:112:10:Miriam Robbins:/home/miriam:/bin/sh -| andy:abcca2:113:10:Andy Jacobs:/home/andy:/bin/sh ... With that introduction, following is a group of functions for getting user information. There are several functions here, corresponding to the C functions of the same names: # passwd.awk --- access password file information BEGIN { # tailor this to suit your system _pw_awklib = "/usr/local/libexec/awk/" } function _pw_init( oldfs, oldrs, olddol0, pwcat, using_fw, using_fpat) { if (_pw_inited) return oldfs = FS oldrs = RS olddol0 = $0 using_fw = (PROCINFO["FS"] == "FIELDWIDTHS") using_fpat = (PROCINFO["FS"] == "FPAT") FS = ":" RS = "\n" pwcat = _pw_awklib "pwcat" while ((pwcat | getline) > 0) { _pw_byname[$1] = $0 _pw_byuid[$3] = $0 _pw_bycount[++_pw_total] = $0 } close(pwcat) _pw_count = 0 _pw_inited = 1 FS = oldfs if (using_fw) FIELDWIDTHS = FIELDWIDTHS else if (using_fpat) FPAT = FPAT RS = oldrs $0 = olddol0 } The `BEGIN' rule sets a private variable to the directory where `pwcat' is stored. Because it is used to help out an `awk' library routine, we have chosen to put it in `/usr/local/libexec/awk'; however, you might want it to be in a different directory on your system. The function `_pw_init()' keeps three copies of the user information in three associative arrays. The arrays are indexed by username (`_pw_byname'), by user ID number (`_pw_byuid'), and by order of occurrence (`_pw_bycount'). The variable `_pw_inited' is used for efficiency, since `_pw_init()' needs to be called only once. Because this function uses `getline' to read information from `pwcat', it first saves the values of `FS', `RS', and `$0'. It notes in the variable `using_fw' whether field splitting with `FIELDWIDTHS' is in effect or not. Doing so is necessary, since these functions could be called from anywhere within a user's program, and the user may have his or her own way of splitting records and fields. The `using_fw' variable checks `PROCINFO["FS"]', which is `"FIELDWIDTHS"' if field splitting is being done with `FIELDWIDTHS'. This makes it possible to restore the correct field-splitting mechanism later. The test can only be true for `gawk'. It is false if using `FS' or `FPAT', or on some other `awk' implementation. The code that checks for using `FPAT', using `using_fpat' and `PROCINFO["FS"]' is similar. The main part of the function uses a loop to read database lines, split the line into fields, and then store the line into each array as necessary. When the loop is done, `_pw_init()' cleans up by closing the pipeline, setting `_pw_inited' to one, and restoring `FS' (and `FIELDWIDTHS' or `FPAT' if necessary), `RS', and `$0'. The use of `_pw_count' is explained shortly. The `getpwnam()' function takes a username as a string argument. If that user is in the database, it returns the appropriate line. Otherwise, it relies on the array reference to a nonexistent element to create the element with the null string as its value: function getpwnam(name) { _pw_init() return _pw_byname[name] } Similarly, the `getpwuid' function takes a user ID number argument. If that user number is in the database, it returns the appropriate line. Otherwise, it returns the null string: function getpwuid(uid) { _pw_init() return _pw_byuid[uid] } The `getpwent()' function simply steps through the database, one entry at a time. It uses `_pw_count' to track its current position in the `_pw_bycount' array: function getpwent() { _pw_init() if (_pw_count < _pw_total) return _pw_bycount[++_pw_count] return "" } The `endpwent()' function resets `_pw_count' to zero, so that subsequent calls to `getpwent()' start over again: function endpwent() { _pw_count = 0 } A conscious design decision in this suite is that each subroutine calls `_pw_init()' to initialize the database arrays. The overhead of running a separate process to generate the user database, and the I/O to scan it, are only incurred if the user's main program actually calls one of these functions. If this library file is loaded along with a user's program, but none of the routines are ever called, then there is no extra runtime overhead. (The alternative is move the body of `_pw_init()' into a `BEGIN' rule, which always runs `pwcat'. This simplifies the code but runs an extra process that may never be needed.) In turn, calling `_pw_init()' is not too expensive, because the `_pw_inited' variable keeps the program from reading the data more than once. If you are worried about squeezing every last cycle out of your `awk' program, the check of `_pw_inited' could be moved out of `_pw_init()' and duplicated in all the other functions. In practice, this is not necessary, since most `awk' programs are I/O-bound, and such a change would clutter up the code. The `id' program in *note Id Program::, uses these functions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) It is often the case that password information is stored in a network database. File: gawk.info, Node: Group Functions, Next: Walking Arrays, Prev: Passwd Functions, Up: Library Functions 12.6 Reading the Group Database =============================== Much of the discussion presented in *note Passwd Functions::, applies to the group database as well. Although there has traditionally been a well-known file (`/etc/group') in a well-known format, the POSIX standard only provides a set of C library routines (`<grp.h>' and `getgrent()') for accessing the information. Even though this file may exist, it may not have complete information. Therefore, as with the user database, it is necessary to have a small C program that generates the group database as its output. `grcat', a C program that "cats" the group database, is as follows: /* * grcat.c * * Generate a printable version of the group database */ #include <stdio.h> #include <grp.h> int main(int argc, char **argv) { struct group *g; int i; while ((g = getgrent()) != NULL) { printf("%s:%s:%ld:", g->gr_name, g->gr_passwd, (long) g->gr_gid); for (i = 0; g->gr_mem[i] != NULL; i++) { printf("%s", g->gr_mem[i]); if (g->gr_mem[i+1] != NULL) putchar(','); } putchar('\n'); } endgrent(); return 0; } Each line in the group database represents one group. The fields are separated with colons and represent the following information: Group Name The group's name. Group Password The group's encrypted password. In practice, this field is never used; it is usually empty or set to `*'. Group ID Number The group's numeric group ID number; this number must be unique within the file. (On some systems it's a C `long', and not an `int'. Thus we cast it to `long' for all cases.) Group Member List A comma-separated list of user names. These users are members of the group. Modern Unix systems allow users to be members of several groups simultaneously. If your system does, then there are elements `"group1"' through `"groupN"' in `PROCINFO' for those group ID numbers. (Note that `PROCINFO' is a `gawk' extension; *note Built-in Variables::.) Here is what running `grcat' might produce: $ grcat -| wheel:*:0:arnold -| nogroup:*:65534: -| daemon:*:1: -| kmem:*:2: -| staff:*:10:arnold,miriam,andy -| other:*:20: ... Here are the functions for obtaining information from the group database. There are several, modeled after the C library functions of the same names: # group.awk --- functions for dealing with the group file BEGIN \ { # Change to suit your system _gr_awklib = "/usr/local/libexec/awk/" } function _gr_init( oldfs, oldrs, olddol0, grcat, using_fw, using_fpat, n, a, i) { if (_gr_inited) return oldfs = FS oldrs = RS olddol0 = $0 using_fw = (PROCINFO["FS"] == "FIELDWIDTHS") using_fpat = (PROCINFO["FS"] == "FPAT") FS = ":" RS = "\n" grcat = _gr_awklib "grcat" while ((grcat | getline) > 0) { if ($1 in _gr_byname) _gr_byname[$1] = _gr_byname[$1] "," $4 else _gr_byname[$1] = $0 if ($3 in _gr_bygid) _gr_bygid[$3] = _gr_bygid[$3] "," $4 else _gr_bygid[$3] = $0 n = split($4, a, "[ \t]*,[ \t]*") for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) if (a[i] in _gr_groupsbyuser) _gr_groupsbyuser[a[i]] = \ _gr_groupsbyuser[a[i]] " " $1 else _gr_groupsbyuser[a[i]] = $1 _gr_bycount[++_gr_count] = $0 } close(grcat) _gr_count = 0 _gr_inited++ FS = oldfs if (using_fw) FIELDWIDTHS = FIELDWIDTHS else if (using_fpat) FPAT = FPAT RS = oldrs $0 = olddol0 } The `BEGIN' rule sets a private variable to the directory where `grcat' is stored. Because it is used to help out an `awk' library routine, we have chosen to put it in `/usr/local/libexec/awk'. You might want it to be in a different directory on your system. These routines follow the same general outline as the user database routines (*note Passwd Functions::). The `_gr_inited' variable is used to ensure that the database is scanned no more than once. The `_gr_init()' function first saves `FS', `RS', and `$0', and then sets `FS' and `RS' to the correct values for scanning the group information. It also takes care to note whether `FIELDWIDTHS' or `FPAT' is being used, and to restore the appropriate field splitting mechanism. The group information is stored is several associative arrays. The arrays are indexed by group name (`_gr_byname'), by group ID number (`_gr_bygid'), and by position in the database (`_gr_bycount'). There is an additional array indexed by user name (`_gr_groupsbyuser'), which is a space-separated list of groups to which each user belongs. Unlike the user database, it is possible to have multiple records in the database for the same group. This is common when a group has a large number of members. A pair of such entries might look like the following: tvpeople:*:101:johnny,jay,arsenio tvpeople:*:101:david,conan,tom,joan For this reason, `_gr_init()' looks to see if a group name or group ID number is already seen. If it is, then the user names are simply concatenated onto the previous list of users. (There is actually a subtle problem with the code just presented. Suppose that the first time there were no names. This code adds the names with a leading comma. It also doesn't check that there is a `$4'.) Finally, `_gr_init()' closes the pipeline to `grcat', restores `FS' (and `FIELDWIDTHS' or `FPAT' if necessary), `RS', and `$0', initializes `_gr_count' to zero (it is used later), and makes `_gr_inited' nonzero. The `getgrnam()' function takes a group name as its argument, and if that group exists, it is returned. Otherwise, it relies on the array reference to a nonexistent element to create the element with the null string as its value: function getgrnam(group) { _gr_init() return _gr_byname[group] } The `getgrgid()' function is similar; it takes a numeric group ID and looks up the information associated with that group ID: function getgrgid(gid) { _gr_init() return _gr_bygid[gid] } The `getgruser()' function does not have a C counterpart. It takes a user name and returns the list of groups that have the user as a member: function getgruser(user) { _gr_init() return _gr_groupsbyuser[user] } The `getgrent()' function steps through the database one entry at a time. It uses `_gr_count' to track its position in the list: function getgrent() { _gr_init() if (++_gr_count in _gr_bycount) return _gr_bycount[_gr_count] return "" } The `endgrent()' function resets `_gr_count' to zero so that `getgrent()' can start over again: function endgrent() { _gr_count = 0 } As with the user database routines, each function calls `_gr_init()' to initialize the arrays. Doing so only incurs the extra overhead of running `grcat' if these functions are used (as opposed to moving the body of `_gr_init()' into a `BEGIN' rule). Most of the work is in scanning the database and building the various associative arrays. The functions that the user calls are themselves very simple, relying on `awk''s associative arrays to do work. The `id' program in *note Id Program::, uses these functions. File: gawk.info, Node: Walking Arrays, Prev: Group Functions, Up: Library Functions 12.7 Traversing Arrays of Arrays ================================ *note Arrays of Arrays::, described how `gawk' provides arrays of arrays. In particular, any element of an array may be either a scalar, or another array. The `isarray()' function (*note Type Functions::) lets you distinguish an array from a scalar. The following function, `walk_array()', recursively traverses an array, printing each element's indices and value. You call it with the array and a string representing the name of the array: function walk_array(arr, name, i) { for (i in arr) { if (isarray(arr[i])) walk_array(arr[i], (name "[" i "]")) else printf("%s[%s] = %s\n", name, i, arr[i]) } } It works by looping over each element of the array. If any given element is itself an array, the function calls itself recursively, passing the subarray and a new string representing the current index. Otherwise, the function simply prints the element's name, index, and value. Here is a main program to demonstrate: BEGIN { a[1] = 1 a[2][1] = 21 a[2][2] = 22 a[3] = 3 a[4][1][1] = 411 a[4][2] = 42 walk_array(a, "a") } When run, the program produces the following output: $ gawk -f walk_array.awk -| a[4][1][1] = 411 -| a[4][2] = 42 -| a[1] = 1 -| a[2][1] = 21 -| a[2][2] = 22 -| a[3] = 3 File: gawk.info, Node: Sample Programs, Next: Debugger, Prev: Library Functions, Up: Top 13 Practical `awk' Programs *************************** *note Library Functions::, presents the idea that reading programs in a language contributes to learning that language. This major node continues that theme, presenting a potpourri of `awk' programs for your reading enjoyment. Many of these programs use library functions presented in *note Library Functions::. * Menu: * Running Examples:: How to run these examples. * Clones:: Clones of common utilities. * Miscellaneous Programs:: Some interesting `awk' programs. File: gawk.info, Node: Running Examples, Next: Clones, Up: Sample Programs 13.1 Running the Example Programs ================================= To run a given program, you would typically do something like this: awk -f PROGRAM -- OPTIONS FILES Here, PROGRAM is the name of the `awk' program (such as `cut.awk'), OPTIONS are any command-line options for the program that start with a `-', and FILES are the actual data files. If your system supports the `#!' executable interpreter mechanism (*note Executable Scripts::), you can instead run your program directly: cut.awk -c1-8 myfiles > results If your `awk' is not `gawk', you may instead need to use this: cut.awk -- -c1-8 myfiles > results File: gawk.info, Node: Clones, Next: Miscellaneous Programs, Prev: Running Examples, Up: Sample Programs 13.2 Reinventing Wheels for Fun and Profit ========================================== This minor node presents a number of POSIX utilities implemented in `awk'. Reinventing these programs in `awk' is often enjoyable, because the algorithms can be very clearly expressed, and the code is usually very concise and simple. This is true because `awk' does so much for you. It should be noted that these programs are not necessarily intended to replace the installed versions on your system. Nor may all of these programs be fully compliant with the most recent POSIX standard. This is not a problem; their purpose is to illustrate `awk' language programming for "real world" tasks. The programs are presented in alphabetical order. * Menu: * Cut Program:: The `cut' utility. * Egrep Program:: The `egrep' utility. * Id Program:: The `id' utility. * Split Program:: The `split' utility. * Tee Program:: The `tee' utility. * Uniq Program:: The `uniq' utility. * Wc Program:: The `wc' utility. File: gawk.info, Node: Cut Program, Next: Egrep Program, Up: Clones 13.2.1 Cutting out Fields and Columns ------------------------------------- The `cut' utility selects, or "cuts," characters or fields from its standard input and sends them to its standard output. Fields are separated by TABs by default, but you may supply a command-line option to change the field "delimiter" (i.e., the field-separator character). `cut''s definition of fields is less general than `awk''s. A common use of `cut' might be to pull out just the login name of logged-on users from the output of `who'. For example, the following pipeline generates a sorted, unique list of the logged-on users: who | cut -c1-8 | sort | uniq The options for `cut' are: `-c LIST' Use LIST as the list of characters to cut out. Items within the list may be separated by commas, and ranges of characters can be separated with dashes. The list `1-8,15,22-35' specifies characters 1 through 8, 15, and 22 through 35. `-f LIST' Use LIST as the list of fields to cut out. `-d DELIM' Use DELIM as the field-separator character instead of the TAB character. `-s' Suppress printing of lines that do not contain the field delimiter. The `awk' implementation of `cut' uses the `getopt()' library function (*note Getopt Function::) and the `join()' library function (*note Join Function::). The program begins with a comment describing the options, the library functions needed, and a `usage()' function that prints out a usage message and exits. `usage()' is called if invalid arguments are supplied: # cut.awk --- implement cut in awk # Options: # -f list Cut fields # -d c Field delimiter character # -c list Cut characters # # -s Suppress lines without the delimiter # # Requires getopt() and join() library functions function usage( e1, e2) { e1 = "usage: cut [-f list] [-d c] [-s] [files...]" e2 = "usage: cut [-c list] [files...]" print e1 > "/dev/stderr" print e2 > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } The variables `e1' and `e2' are used so that the function fits nicely on the screen. Next comes a `BEGIN' rule that parses the command-line options. It sets `FS' to a single TAB character, because that is `cut''s default field separator. The rule then sets the output field separator to be the same as the input field separator. A loop using `getopt()' steps through the command-line options. Exactly one of the variables `by_fields' or `by_chars' is set to true, to indicate that processing should be done by fields or by characters, respectively. When cutting by characters, the output field separator is set to the null string: BEGIN \ { FS = "\t" # default OFS = FS while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "sf:c:d:")) != -1) { if (c == "f") { by_fields = 1 fieldlist = Optarg } else if (c == "c") { by_chars = 1 fieldlist = Optarg OFS = "" } else if (c == "d") { if (length(Optarg) > 1) { printf("Using first character of %s" \ " for delimiter\n", Optarg) > "/dev/stderr" Optarg = substr(Optarg, 1, 1) } FS = Optarg OFS = FS if (FS == " ") # defeat awk semantics FS = "[ ]" } else if (c == "s") suppress++ else usage() } # Clear out options for (i = 1; i < Optind; i++) ARGV[i] = "" The code must take special care when the field delimiter is a space. Using a single space (`" "') for the value of `FS' is incorrect--`awk' would separate fields with runs of spaces, TABs, and/or newlines, and we want them to be separated with individual spaces. Also remember that after `getopt()' is through (as described in *note Getopt Function::), we have to clear out all the elements of `ARGV' from 1 to `Optind', so that `awk' does not try to process the command-line options as file names. After dealing with the command-line options, the program verifies that the options make sense. Only one or the other of `-c' and `-f' should be used, and both require a field list. Then the program calls either `set_fieldlist()' or `set_charlist()' to pull apart the list of fields or characters: if (by_fields && by_chars) usage() if (by_fields == 0 && by_chars == 0) by_fields = 1 # default if (fieldlist == "") { print "cut: needs list for -c or -f" > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } if (by_fields) set_fieldlist() else set_charlist() } `set_fieldlist()' splits the field list apart at the commas into an array. Then, for each element of the array, it looks to see if the element is actually a range, and if so, splits it apart. The function checks the range to make sure that the first number is smaller than the second. Each number in the list is added to the `flist' array, which simply lists the fields that will be printed. Normal field splitting is used. The program lets `awk' handle the job of doing the field splitting: function set_fieldlist( n, m, i, j, k, f, g) { n = split(fieldlist, f, ",") j = 1 # index in flist for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { if (index(f[i], "-") != 0) { # a range m = split(f[i], g, "-") if (m != 2 || g[1] >= g[2]) { printf("bad field list: %s\n", f[i]) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } for (k = g[1]; k <= g[2]; k++) flist[j++] = k } else flist[j++] = f[i] } nfields = j - 1 } The `set_charlist()' function is more complicated than `set_fieldlist()'. The idea here is to use `gawk''s `FIELDWIDTHS' variable (*note Constant Size::), which describes constant-width input. When using a character list, that is exactly what we have. Setting up `FIELDWIDTHS' is more complicated than simply listing the fields that need to be printed. We have to keep track of the fields to print and also the intervening characters that have to be skipped. For example, suppose you wanted characters 1 through 8, 15, and 22 through 35. You would use `-c 1-8,15,22-35'. The necessary value for `FIELDWIDTHS' is `"8 6 1 6 14"'. This yields five fields, and the fields to print are `$1', `$3', and `$5'. The intermediate fields are "filler", which is stuff in between the desired data. `flist' lists the fields to print, and `t' tracks the complete field list, including filler fields: function set_charlist( field, i, j, f, g, t, filler, last, len) { field = 1 # count total fields n = split(fieldlist, f, ",") j = 1 # index in flist for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { if (index(f[i], "-") != 0) { # range m = split(f[i], g, "-") if (m != 2 || g[1] >= g[2]) { printf("bad character list: %s\n", f[i]) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } len = g[2] - g[1] + 1 if (g[1] > 1) # compute length of filler filler = g[1] - last - 1 else filler = 0 if (filler) t[field++] = filler t[field++] = len # length of field last = g[2] flist[j++] = field - 1 } else { if (f[i] > 1) filler = f[i] - last - 1 else filler = 0 if (filler) t[field++] = filler t[field++] = 1 last = f[i] flist[j++] = field - 1 } } FIELDWIDTHS = join(t, 1, field - 1) nfields = j - 1 } Next is the rule that actually processes the data. If the `-s' option is given, then `suppress' is true. The first `if' statement makes sure that the input record does have the field separator. If `cut' is processing fields, `suppress' is true, and the field separator character is not in the record, then the record is skipped. If the record is valid, then `gawk' has split the data into fields, either using the character in `FS' or using fixed-length fields and `FIELDWIDTHS'. The loop goes through the list of fields that should be printed. The corresponding field is printed if it contains data. If the next field also has data, then the separator character is written out between the fields: { if (by_fields && suppress && index($0, FS) != 0) next for (i = 1; i <= nfields; i++) { if ($flist[i] != "") { printf "%s", $flist[i] if (i < nfields && $flist[i+1] != "") printf "%s", OFS } } print "" } This version of `cut' relies on `gawk''s `FIELDWIDTHS' variable to do the character-based cutting. While it is possible in other `awk' implementations to use `substr()' (*note String Functions::), it is also extremely painful. The `FIELDWIDTHS' variable supplies an elegant solution to the problem of picking the input line apart by characters. File: gawk.info, Node: Egrep Program, Next: Id Program, Prev: Cut Program, Up: Clones 13.2.2 Searching for Regular Expressions in Files ------------------------------------------------- The `egrep' utility searches files for patterns. It uses regular expressions that are almost identical to those available in `awk' (*note Regexp::). You invoke it as follows: egrep [ OPTIONS ] 'PATTERN' FILES ... The PATTERN is a regular expression. In typical usage, the regular expression is quoted to prevent the shell from expanding any of the special characters as file name wildcards. Normally, `egrep' prints the lines that matched. If multiple file names are provided on the command line, each output line is preceded by the name of the file and a colon. The options to `egrep' are as follows: `-c' Print out a count of the lines that matched the pattern, instead of the lines themselves. `-s' Be silent. No output is produced and the exit value indicates whether the pattern was matched. `-v' Invert the sense of the test. `egrep' prints the lines that do _not_ match the pattern and exits successfully if the pattern is not matched. `-i' Ignore case distinctions in both the pattern and the input data. `-l' Only print (list) the names of the files that matched, not the lines that matched. `-e PATTERN' Use PATTERN as the regexp to match. The purpose of the `-e' option is to allow patterns that start with a `-'. This version uses the `getopt()' library function (*note Getopt Function::) and the file transition library program (*note Filetrans Function::). The program begins with a descriptive comment and then a `BEGIN' rule that processes the command-line arguments with `getopt()'. The `-i' (ignore case) option is particularly easy with `gawk'; we just use the `IGNORECASE' built-in variable (*note Built-in Variables::): # egrep.awk --- simulate egrep in awk # # Options: # -c count of lines # -s silent - use exit value # -v invert test, success if no match # -i ignore case # -l print filenames only # -e argument is pattern # # Requires getopt and file transition library functions BEGIN { while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "ce:svil")) != -1) { if (c == "c") count_only++ else if (c == "s") no_print++ else if (c == "v") invert++ else if (c == "i") IGNORECASE = 1 else if (c == "l") filenames_only++ else if (c == "e") pattern = Optarg else usage() } Next comes the code that handles the `egrep'-specific behavior. If no pattern is supplied with `-e', the first nonoption on the command line is used. The `awk' command-line arguments up to `ARGV[Optind]' are cleared, so that `awk' won't try to process them as files. If no files are specified, the standard input is used, and if multiple files are specified, we make sure to note this so that the file names can precede the matched lines in the output: if (pattern == "") pattern = ARGV[Optind++] for (i = 1; i < Optind; i++) ARGV[i] = "" if (Optind >= ARGC) { ARGV[1] = "-" ARGC = 2 } else if (ARGC - Optind > 1) do_filenames++ # if (IGNORECASE) # pattern = tolower(pattern) } The last two lines are commented out, since they are not needed in `gawk'. They should be uncommented if you have to use another version of `awk'. The next set of lines should be uncommented if you are not using `gawk'. This rule translates all the characters in the input line into lowercase if the `-i' option is specified.(1) The rule is commented out since it is not necessary with `gawk': #{ # if (IGNORECASE) # $0 = tolower($0) #} The `beginfile()' function is called by the rule in `ftrans.awk' when each new file is processed. In this case, it is very simple; all it does is initialize a variable `fcount' to zero. `fcount' tracks how many lines in the current file matched the pattern. Naming the parameter `junk' shows we know that `beginfile()' is called with a parameter, but that we're not interested in its value: function beginfile(junk) { fcount = 0 } The `endfile()' function is called after each file has been processed. It affects the output only when the user wants a count of the number of lines that matched. `no_print' is true only if the exit status is desired. `count_only' is true if line counts are desired. `egrep' therefore only prints line counts if printing and counting are enabled. The output format must be adjusted depending upon the number of files to process. Finally, `fcount' is added to `total', so that we know the total number of lines that matched the pattern: function endfile(file) { if (! no_print && count_only) { if (do_filenames) print file ":" fcount else print fcount } total += fcount } The following rule does most of the work of matching lines. The variable `matches' is true if the line matched the pattern. If the user wants lines that did not match, the sense of `matches' is inverted using the `!' operator. `fcount' is incremented with the value of `matches', which is either one or zero, depending upon a successful or unsuccessful match. If the line does not match, the `next' statement just moves on to the next record. A number of additional tests are made, but they are only done if we are not counting lines. First, if the user only wants exit status (`no_print' is true), then it is enough to know that _one_ line in this file matched, and we can skip on to the next file with `nextfile'. Similarly, if we are only printing file names, we can print the file name, and then skip to the next file with `nextfile'. Finally, each line is printed, with a leading file name and colon if necessary: { matches = ($0 ~ pattern) if (invert) matches = ! matches fcount += matches # 1 or 0 if (! matches) next if (! count_only) { if (no_print) nextfile if (filenames_only) { print FILENAME nextfile } if (do_filenames) print FILENAME ":" $0 else print } } The `END' rule takes care of producing the correct exit status. If there are no matches, the exit status is one; otherwise it is zero: END \ { if (total == 0) exit 1 exit 0 } The `usage()' function prints a usage message in case of invalid options, and then exits: function usage( e) { e = "Usage: egrep [-csvil] [-e pat] [files ...]" e = e "\n\tegrep [-csvil] pat [files ...]" print e > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } The variable `e' is used so that the function fits nicely on the printed page. Just a note on programming style: you may have noticed that the `END' rule uses backslash continuation, with the open brace on a line by itself. This is so that it more closely resembles the way functions are written. Many of the examples in this major node use this style. You can decide for yourself if you like writing your `BEGIN' and `END' rules this way or not. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) It also introduces a subtle bug; if a match happens, we output the translated line, not the original. File: gawk.info, Node: Id Program, Next: Split Program, Prev: Egrep Program, Up: Clones 13.2.3 Printing out User Information ------------------------------------ The `id' utility lists a user's real and effective user ID numbers, real and effective group ID numbers, and the user's group set, if any. `id' only prints the effective user ID and group ID if they are different from the real ones. If possible, `id' also supplies the corresponding user and group names. The output might look like this: $ id -| uid=500(arnold) gid=500(arnold) groups=6(disk),7(lp),19(floppy) This information is part of what is provided by `gawk''s `PROCINFO' array (*note Built-in Variables::). However, the `id' utility provides a more palatable output than just individual numbers. Here is a simple version of `id' written in `awk'. It uses the user database library functions (*note Passwd Functions::) and the group database library functions (*note Group Functions::): The program is fairly straightforward. All the work is done in the `BEGIN' rule. The user and group ID numbers are obtained from `PROCINFO'. The code is repetitive. The entry in the user database for the real user ID number is split into parts at the `:'. The name is the first field. Similar code is used for the effective user ID number and the group numbers: # id.awk --- implement id in awk # # Requires user and group library functions # output is: # uid=12(foo) euid=34(bar) gid=3(baz) \ # egid=5(blat) groups=9(nine),2(two),1(one) BEGIN \ { uid = PROCINFO["uid"] euid = PROCINFO["euid"] gid = PROCINFO["gid"] egid = PROCINFO["egid"] printf("uid=%d", uid) pw = getpwuid(uid) if (pw != "") { split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } if (euid != uid) { printf(" euid=%d", euid) pw = getpwuid(euid) if (pw != "") { split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } } printf(" gid=%d", gid) pw = getgrgid(gid) if (pw != "") { split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } if (egid != gid) { printf(" egid=%d", egid) pw = getgrgid(egid) if (pw != "") { split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } } for (i = 1; ("group" i) in PROCINFO; i++) { if (i == 1) printf(" groups=") group = PROCINFO["group" i] printf("%d", group) pw = getgrgid(group) if (pw != "") { split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } if (("group" (i+1)) in PROCINFO) printf(",") } print "" } The test in the `for' loop is worth noting. Any supplementary groups in the `PROCINFO' array have the indices `"group1"' through `"groupN"' for some N, i.e., the total number of supplementary groups. However, we don't know in advance how many of these groups there are. This loop works by starting at one, concatenating the value with `"group"', and then using `in' to see if that value is in the array. Eventually, `i' is incremented past the last group in the array and the loop exits. The loop is also correct if there are _no_ supplementary groups; then the condition is false the first time it's tested, and the loop body never executes. File: gawk.info, Node: Split Program, Next: Tee Program, Prev: Id Program, Up: Clones 13.2.4 Splitting a Large File into Pieces ----------------------------------------- The `split' program splits large text files into smaller pieces. Usage is as follows:(1) split [-COUNT] file [ PREFIX ] By default, the output files are named `xaa', `xab', and so on. Each file has 1000 lines in it, with the likely exception of the last file. To change the number of lines in each file, supply a number on the command line preceded with a minus; e.g., `-500' for files with 500 lines in them instead of 1000. To change the name of the output files to something like `myfileaa', `myfileab', and so on, supply an additional argument that specifies the file name prefix. Here is a version of `split' in `awk'. It uses the `ord()' and `chr()' functions presented in *note Ordinal Functions::. The program first sets its defaults, and then tests to make sure there are not too many arguments. It then looks at each argument in turn. The first argument could be a minus sign followed by a number. If it is, this happens to look like a negative number, so it is made positive, and that is the count of lines. The data file name is skipped over and the final argument is used as the prefix for the output file names: # split.awk --- do split in awk # # Requires ord() and chr() library functions # usage: split [-num] [file] [outname] BEGIN { outfile = "x" # default count = 1000 if (ARGC > 4) usage() i = 1 if (ARGV[i] ~ /^-[[:digit:]]+$/) { count = -ARGV[i] ARGV[i] = "" i++ } # test argv in case reading from stdin instead of file if (i in ARGV) i++ # skip data file name if (i in ARGV) { outfile = ARGV[i] ARGV[i] = "" } s1 = s2 = "a" out = (outfile s1 s2) } The next rule does most of the work. `tcount' (temporary count) tracks how many lines have been printed to the output file so far. If it is greater than `count', it is time to close the current file and start a new one. `s1' and `s2' track the current suffixes for the file name. If they are both `z', the file is just too big. Otherwise, `s1' moves to the next letter in the alphabet and `s2' starts over again at `a': { if (++tcount > count) { close(out) if (s2 == "z") { if (s1 == "z") { printf("split: %s is too large to split\n", FILENAME) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } s1 = chr(ord(s1) + 1) s2 = "a" } else s2 = chr(ord(s2) + 1) out = (outfile s1 s2) tcount = 1 } print > out } The `usage()' function simply prints an error message and exits: function usage( e) { e = "usage: split [-num] [file] [outname]" print e > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } The variable `e' is used so that the function fits nicely on the screen. This program is a bit sloppy; it relies on `awk' to automatically close the last file instead of doing it in an `END' rule. It also assumes that letters are contiguous in the character set, which isn't true for EBCDIC systems. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This is the traditional usage. The POSIX usage is different, but not relevant for what the program aims to demonstrate. File: gawk.info, Node: Tee Program, Next: Uniq Program, Prev: Split Program, Up: Clones 13.2.5 Duplicating Output into Multiple Files --------------------------------------------- The `tee' program is known as a "pipe fitting." `tee' copies its standard input to its standard output and also duplicates it to the files named on the command line. Its usage is as follows: tee [-a] file ... The `-a' option tells `tee' to append to the named files, instead of truncating them and starting over. The `BEGIN' rule first makes a copy of all the command-line arguments into an array named `copy'. `ARGV[0]' is not copied, since it is not needed. `tee' cannot use `ARGV' directly, since `awk' attempts to process each file name in `ARGV' as input data. If the first argument is `-a', then the flag variable `append' is set to true, and both `ARGV[1]' and `copy[1]' are deleted. If `ARGC' is less than two, then no file names were supplied and `tee' prints a usage message and exits. Finally, `awk' is forced to read the standard input by setting `ARGV[1]' to `"-"' and `ARGC' to two: # tee.awk --- tee in awk # # Copy standard input to all named output files. # Append content if -a option is supplied. # BEGIN \ { for (i = 1; i < ARGC; i++) copy[i] = ARGV[i] if (ARGV[1] == "-a") { append = 1 delete ARGV[1] delete copy[1] ARGC-- } if (ARGC < 2) { print "usage: tee [-a] file ..." > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } ARGV[1] = "-" ARGC = 2 } The following single rule does all the work. Since there is no pattern, it is executed for each line of input. The body of the rule simply prints the line into each file on the command line, and then to the standard output: { # moving the if outside the loop makes it run faster if (append) for (i in copy) print >> copy[i] else for (i in copy) print > copy[i] print } It is also possible to write the loop this way: for (i in copy) if (append) print >> copy[i] else print > copy[i] This is more concise but it is also less efficient. The `if' is tested for each record and for each output file. By duplicating the loop body, the `if' is only tested once for each input record. If there are N input records and M output files, the first method only executes N `if' statements, while the second executes N`*'M `if' statements. Finally, the `END' rule cleans up by closing all the output files: END \ { for (i in copy) close(copy[i]) } File: gawk.info, Node: Uniq Program, Next: Wc Program, Prev: Tee Program, Up: Clones 13.2.6 Printing Nonduplicated Lines of Text ------------------------------------------- The `uniq' utility reads sorted lines of data on its standard input, and by default removes duplicate lines. In other words, it only prints unique lines--hence the name. `uniq' has a number of options. The usage is as follows: uniq [-udc [-N]] [+N] [ INPUT FILE [ OUTPUT FILE ]] The options for `uniq' are: `-d' Print only repeated lines. `-u' Print only nonrepeated lines. `-c' Count lines. This option overrides `-d' and `-u'. Both repeated and nonrepeated lines are counted. `-N' Skip N fields before comparing lines. The definition of fields is similar to `awk''s default: nonwhitespace characters separated by runs of spaces and/or TABs. `+N' Skip N characters before comparing lines. Any fields specified with `-N' are skipped first. `INPUT FILE' Data is read from the input file named on the command line, instead of from the standard input. `OUTPUT FILE' The generated output is sent to the named output file, instead of to the standard output. Normally `uniq' behaves as if both the `-d' and `-u' options are provided. `uniq' uses the `getopt()' library function (*note Getopt Function::) and the `join()' library function (*note Join Function::). The program begins with a `usage()' function and then a brief outline of the options and their meanings in comments. The `BEGIN' rule deals with the command-line arguments and options. It uses a trick to get `getopt()' to handle options of the form `-25', treating such an option as the option letter `2' with an argument of `5'. If indeed two or more digits are supplied (`Optarg' looks like a number), `Optarg' is concatenated with the option digit and then the result is added to zero to make it into a number. If there is only one digit in the option, then `Optarg' is not needed. In this case, `Optind' must be decremented so that `getopt()' processes it next time. This code is admittedly a bit tricky. If no options are supplied, then the default is taken, to print both repeated and nonrepeated lines. The output file, if provided, is assigned to `outputfile'. Early on, `outputfile' is initialized to the standard output, `/dev/stdout': # uniq.awk --- do uniq in awk # # Requires getopt() and join() library functions function usage( e) { e = "Usage: uniq [-udc [-n]] [+n] [ in [ out ]]" print e > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } # -c count lines. overrides -d and -u # -d only repeated lines # -u only nonrepeated lines # -n skip n fields # +n skip n characters, skip fields first BEGIN \ { count = 1 outputfile = "/dev/stdout" opts = "udc0:1:2:3:4:5:6:7:8:9:" while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, opts)) != -1) { if (c == "u") non_repeated_only++ else if (c == "d") repeated_only++ else if (c == "c") do_count++ else if (index("0123456789", c) != 0) { # getopt requires args to options # this messes us up for things like -5 if (Optarg ~ /^[[:digit:]]+$/) fcount = (c Optarg) + 0 else { fcount = c + 0 Optind-- } } else usage() } if (ARGV[Optind] ~ /^\+[[:digit:]]+$/) { charcount = substr(ARGV[Optind], 2) + 0 Optind++ } for (i = 1; i < Optind; i++) ARGV[i] = "" if (repeated_only == 0 && non_repeated_only == 0) repeated_only = non_repeated_only = 1 if (ARGC - Optind == 2) { outputfile = ARGV[ARGC - 1] ARGV[ARGC - 1] = "" } } The following function, `are_equal()', compares the current line, `$0', to the previous line, `last'. It handles skipping fields and characters. If no field count and no character count are specified, `are_equal()' simply returns one or zero depending upon the result of a simple string comparison of `last' and `$0'. Otherwise, things get more complicated. If fields have to be skipped, each line is broken into an array using `split()' (*note String Functions::); the desired fields are then joined back into a line using `join()'. The joined lines are stored in `clast' and `cline'. If no fields are skipped, `clast' and `cline' are set to `last' and `$0', respectively. Finally, if characters are skipped, `substr()' is used to strip off the leading `charcount' characters in `clast' and `cline'. The two strings are then compared and `are_equal()' returns the result: function are_equal( n, m, clast, cline, alast, aline) { if (fcount == 0 && charcount == 0) return (last == $0) if (fcount > 0) { n = split(last, alast) m = split($0, aline) clast = join(alast, fcount+1, n) cline = join(aline, fcount+1, m) } else { clast = last cline = $0 } if (charcount) { clast = substr(clast, charcount + 1) cline = substr(cline, charcount + 1) } return (clast == cline) } The following two rules are the body of the program. The first one is executed only for the very first line of data. It sets `last' equal to `$0', so that subsequent lines of text have something to be compared to. The second rule does the work. The variable `equal' is one or zero, depending upon the results of `are_equal()''s comparison. If `uniq' is counting repeated lines, and the lines are equal, then it increments the `count' variable. Otherwise, it prints the line and resets `count', since the two lines are not equal. If `uniq' is not counting, and if the lines are equal, `count' is incremented. Nothing is printed, since the point is to remove duplicates. Otherwise, if `uniq' is counting repeated lines and more than one line is seen, or if `uniq' is counting nonrepeated lines and only one line is seen, then the line is printed, and `count' is reset. Finally, similar logic is used in the `END' rule to print the final line of input data: NR == 1 { last = $0 next } { equal = are_equal() if (do_count) { # overrides -d and -u if (equal) count++ else { printf("%4d %s\n", count, last) > outputfile last = $0 count = 1 # reset } next } if (equal) count++ else { if ((repeated_only && count > 1) || (non_repeated_only && count == 1)) print last > outputfile last = $0 count = 1 } } END { if (do_count) printf("%4d %s\n", count, last) > outputfile else if ((repeated_only && count > 1) || (non_repeated_only && count == 1)) print last > outputfile close(outputfile) } File: gawk.info, Node: Wc Program, Prev: Uniq Program, Up: Clones 13.2.7 Counting Things ---------------------- The `wc' (word count) utility counts lines, words, and characters in one or more input files. Its usage is as follows: wc [-lwc] [ FILES ... ] If no files are specified on the command line, `wc' reads its standard input. If there are multiple files, it also prints total counts for all the files. The options and their meanings are shown in the following list: `-l' Count only lines. `-w' Count only words. A "word" is a contiguous sequence of nonwhitespace characters, separated by spaces and/or TABs. Luckily, this is the normal way `awk' separates fields in its input data. `-c' Count only characters. Implementing `wc' in `awk' is particularly elegant, since `awk' does a lot of the work for us; it splits lines into words (i.e., fields) and counts them, it counts lines (i.e., records), and it can easily tell us how long a line is. This program uses the `getopt()' library function (*note Getopt Function::) and the file-transition functions (*note Filetrans Function::). This version has one notable difference from traditional versions of `wc': it always prints the counts in the order lines, words, and characters. Traditional versions note the order of the `-l', `-w', and `-c' options on the command line, and print the counts in that order. The `BEGIN' rule does the argument processing. The variable `print_total' is true if more than one file is named on the command line: # wc.awk --- count lines, words, characters # Options: # -l only count lines # -w only count words # -c only count characters # # Default is to count lines, words, characters # # Requires getopt() and file transition library functions BEGIN { # let getopt() print a message about # invalid options. we ignore them while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "lwc")) != -1) { if (c == "l") do_lines = 1 else if (c == "w") do_words = 1 else if (c == "c") do_chars = 1 } for (i = 1; i < Optind; i++) ARGV[i] = "" # if no options, do all if (! do_lines && ! do_words && ! do_chars) do_lines = do_words = do_chars = 1 print_total = (ARGC - i > 2) } The `beginfile()' function is simple; it just resets the counts of lines, words, and characters to zero, and saves the current file name in `fname': function beginfile(file) { lines = words = chars = 0 fname = FILENAME } The `endfile()' function adds the current file's numbers to the running totals of lines, words, and characters.(1) It then prints out those numbers for the file that was just read. It relies on `beginfile()' to reset the numbers for the following data file: function endfile(file) { tlines += lines twords += words tchars += chars if (do_lines) printf "\t%d", lines if (do_words) printf "\t%d", words if (do_chars) printf "\t%d", chars printf "\t%s\n", fname } There is one rule that is executed for each line. It adds the length of the record, plus one, to `chars'.(2) Adding one plus the record length is needed because the newline character separating records (the value of `RS') is not part of the record itself, and thus not included in its length. Next, `lines' is incremented for each line read, and `words' is incremented by the value of `NF', which is the number of "words" on this line: # do per line { chars += length($0) + 1 # get newline lines++ words += NF } Finally, the `END' rule simply prints the totals for all the files: END { if (print_total) { if (do_lines) printf "\t%d", tlines if (do_words) printf "\t%d", twords if (do_chars) printf "\t%d", tchars print "\ttotal" } } ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) `wc' can't just use the value of `FNR' in `endfile()'. If you examine the code in *note Filetrans Function::, you will see that `FNR' has already been reset by the time `endfile()' is called. (2) Since `gawk' understands multibyte locales, this code counts characters, not bytes. File: gawk.info, Node: Miscellaneous Programs, Prev: Clones, Up: Sample Programs 13.3 A Grab Bag of `awk' Programs ================================= This minor node is a large "grab bag" of miscellaneous programs. We hope you find them both interesting and enjoyable. * Menu: * Dupword Program:: Finding duplicated words in a document. * Alarm Program:: An alarm clock. * Translate Program:: A program similar to the `tr' utility. * Labels Program:: Printing mailing labels. * Word Sorting:: A program to produce a word usage count. * History Sorting:: Eliminating duplicate entries from a history file. * Extract Program:: Pulling out programs from Texinfo source files. * Simple Sed:: A Simple Stream Editor. * Igawk Program:: A wrapper for `awk' that includes files. * Anagram Program:: Finding anagrams from a dictionary. * Signature Program:: People do amazing things with too much time on their hands. File: gawk.info, Node: Dupword Program, Next: Alarm Program, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.1 Finding Duplicated Words in a Document --------------------------------------------- A common error when writing large amounts of prose is to accidentally duplicate words. Typically you will see this in text as something like "the the program does the following..." When the text is online, often the duplicated words occur at the end of one line and the beginning of another, making them very difficult to spot. This program, `dupword.awk', scans through a file one line at a time and looks for adjacent occurrences of the same word. It also saves the last word on a line (in the variable `prev') for comparison with the first word on the next line. The first two statements make sure that the line is all lowercase, so that, for example, "The" and "the" compare equal to each other. The next statement replaces nonalphanumeric and nonwhitespace characters with spaces, so that punctuation does not affect the comparison either. The characters are replaced with spaces so that formatting controls don't create nonsense words (e.g., the Texinfo `@code{NF}' becomes `codeNF' if punctuation is simply deleted). The record is then resplit into fields, yielding just the actual words on the line, and ensuring that there are no empty fields. If there are no fields left after removing all the punctuation, the current record is skipped. Otherwise, the program loops through each word, comparing it to the previous one: # dupword.awk --- find duplicate words in text { $0 = tolower($0) gsub(/[^[:alnum:][:blank:]]/, " "); $0 = $0 # re-split if (NF == 0) next if ($1 == prev) printf("%s:%d: duplicate %s\n", FILENAME, FNR, $1) for (i = 2; i <= NF; i++) if ($i == $(i-1)) printf("%s:%d: duplicate %s\n", FILENAME, FNR, $i) prev = $NF } File: gawk.info, Node: Alarm Program, Next: Translate Program, Prev: Dupword Program, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.2 An Alarm Clock Program ----------------------------- Nothing cures insomnia like a ringing alarm clock. Arnold Robbins The following program is a simple "alarm clock" program. You give it a time of day and an optional message. At the specified time, it prints the message on the standard output. In addition, you can give it the number of times to repeat the message as well as a delay between repetitions. This program uses the `gettimeofday()' function from *note Gettimeofday Function::. All the work is done in the `BEGIN' rule. The first part is argument checking and setting of defaults: the delay, the count, and the message to print. If the user supplied a message without the ASCII BEL character (known as the "alert" character, `"\a"'), then it is added to the message. (On many systems, printing the ASCII BEL generates an audible alert. Thus when the alarm goes off, the system calls attention to itself in case the user is not looking at the computer.) Just for a change, this program uses a `switch' statement (*note Switch Statement::), but the processing could be done with a series of `if'-`else' statements instead. Here is the program: # alarm.awk --- set an alarm # # Requires gettimeofday() library function # usage: alarm time [ "message" [ count [ delay ] ] ] BEGIN \ { # Initial argument sanity checking usage1 = "usage: alarm time ['message' [count [delay]]]" usage2 = sprintf("\t(%s) time ::= hh:mm", ARGV[1]) if (ARGC < 2) { print usage1 > "/dev/stderr" print usage2 > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } switch (ARGC) { case 5: delay = ARGV[4] + 0 # fall through case 4: count = ARGV[3] + 0 # fall through case 3: message = ARGV[2] break default: if (ARGV[1] !~ /[[:digit:]]?[[:digit:]]:[[:digit:]]{2}/) { print usage1 > "/dev/stderr" print usage2 > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } break } # set defaults for once we reach the desired time if (delay == 0) delay = 180 # 3 minutes if (count == 0) count = 5 if (message == "") message = sprintf("\aIt is now %s!\a", ARGV[1]) else if (index(message, "\a") == 0) message = "\a" message "\a" The next minor node of code turns the alarm time into hours and minutes, converts it (if necessary) to a 24-hour clock, and then turns that time into a count of the seconds since midnight. Next it turns the current time into a count of seconds since midnight. The difference between the two is how long to wait before setting off the alarm: # split up alarm time split(ARGV[1], atime, ":") hour = atime[1] + 0 # force numeric minute = atime[2] + 0 # force numeric # get current broken down time gettimeofday(now) # if time given is 12-hour hours and it's after that # hour, e.g., `alarm 5:30' at 9 a.m. means 5:30 p.m., # then add 12 to real hour if (hour < 12 && now["hour"] > hour) hour += 12 # set target time in seconds since midnight target = (hour * 60 * 60) + (minute * 60) # get current time in seconds since midnight current = (now["hour"] * 60 * 60) + \ (now["minute"] * 60) + now["second"] # how long to sleep for naptime = target - current if (naptime <= 0) { print "time is in the past!" > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } Finally, the program uses the `system()' function (*note I/O Functions::) to call the `sleep' utility. The `sleep' utility simply pauses for the given number of seconds. If the exit status is not zero, the program assumes that `sleep' was interrupted and exits. If `sleep' exited with an OK status (zero), then the program prints the message in a loop, again using `sleep' to delay for however many seconds are necessary: # zzzzzz..... go away if interrupted if (system(sprintf("sleep %d", naptime)) != 0) exit 1 # time to notify! command = sprintf("sleep %d", delay) for (i = 1; i <= count; i++) { print message # if sleep command interrupted, go away if (system(command) != 0) break } exit 0 } File: gawk.info, Node: Translate Program, Next: Labels Program, Prev: Alarm Program, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.3 Transliterating Characters --------------------------------- The system `tr' utility transliterates characters. For example, it is often used to map uppercase letters into lowercase for further processing: GENERATE DATA | tr 'A-Z' 'a-z' | PROCESS DATA ... `tr' requires two lists of characters.(1) When processing the input, the first character in the first list is replaced with the first character in the second list, the second character in the first list is replaced with the second character in the second list, and so on. If there are more characters in the "from" list than in the "to" list, the last character of the "to" list is used for the remaining characters in the "from" list. Some time ago, a user proposed that a transliteration function should be added to `gawk'. The following program was written to prove that character transliteration could be done with a user-level function. This program is not as complete as the system `tr' utility but it does most of the job. The `translate' program demonstrates one of the few weaknesses of standard `awk': dealing with individual characters is very painful, requiring repeated use of the `substr()', `index()', and `gsub()' built-in functions (*note String Functions::).(2) There are two functions. The first, `stranslate()', takes three arguments: `from' A list of characters from which to translate. `to' A list of characters to which to translate. `target' The string on which to do the translation. Associative arrays make the translation part fairly easy. `t_ar' holds the "to" characters, indexed by the "from" characters. Then a simple loop goes through `from', one character at a time. For each character in `from', if the character appears in `target', it is replaced with the corresponding `to' character. The `translate()' function simply calls `stranslate()' using `$0' as the target. The main program sets two global variables, `FROM' and `TO', from the command line, and then changes `ARGV' so that `awk' reads from the standard input. Finally, the processing rule simply calls `translate()' for each record: # translate.awk --- do tr-like stuff # Bugs: does not handle things like: tr A-Z a-z, it has # to be spelled out. However, if `to' is shorter than `from', # the last character in `to' is used for the rest of `from'. function stranslate(from, to, target, lf, lt, ltarget, t_ar, i, c, result) { lf = length(from) lt = length(to) ltarget = length(target) for (i = 1; i <= lt; i++) t_ar[substr(from, i, 1)] = substr(to, i, 1) if (lt < lf) for (; i <= lf; i++) t_ar[substr(from, i, 1)] = substr(to, lt, 1) for (i = 1; i <= ltarget; i++) { c = substr(target, i, 1) if (c in t_ar) c = t_ar[c] result = result c } return result } function translate(from, to) { return $0 = stranslate(from, to, $0) } # main program BEGIN { if (ARGC < 3) { print "usage: translate from to" > "/dev/stderr" exit } FROM = ARGV[1] TO = ARGV[2] ARGC = 2 ARGV[1] = "-" } { translate(FROM, TO) print } While it is possible to do character transliteration in a user-level function, it is not necessarily efficient, and we (the `gawk' authors) started to consider adding a built-in function. However, shortly after writing this program, we learned that the System V Release 4 `awk' had added the `toupper()' and `tolower()' functions (*note String Functions::). These functions handle the vast majority of the cases where character transliteration is necessary, and so we chose to simply add those functions to `gawk' as well and then leave well enough alone. An obvious improvement to this program would be to set up the `t_ar' array only once, in a `BEGIN' rule. However, this assumes that the "from" and "to" lists will never change throughout the lifetime of the program. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) On some older systems, `tr' may require that the lists be written as range expressions enclosed in square brackets (`[a-z]') and quoted, to prevent the shell from attempting a file name expansion. This is not a feature. (2) This program was written before `gawk' acquired the ability to split each character in a string into separate array elements. File: gawk.info, Node: Labels Program, Next: Word Sorting, Prev: Translate Program, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.4 Printing Mailing Labels ------------------------------ Here is a "real world"(1) program. This script reads lists of names and addresses and generates mailing labels. Each page of labels has 20 labels on it, two across and 10 down. The addresses are guaranteed to be no more than five lines of data. Each address is separated from the next by a blank line. The basic idea is to read 20 labels worth of data. Each line of each label is stored in the `line' array. The single rule takes care of filling the `line' array and printing the page when 20 labels have been read. The `BEGIN' rule simply sets `RS' to the empty string, so that `awk' splits records at blank lines (*note Records::). It sets `MAXLINES' to 100, since 100 is the maximum number of lines on the page (20 * 5 = 100). Most of the work is done in the `printpage()' function. The label lines are stored sequentially in the `line' array. But they have to print horizontally; `line[1]' next to `line[6]', `line[2]' next to `line[7]', and so on. Two loops are used to accomplish this. The outer loop, controlled by `i', steps through every 10 lines of data; this is each row of labels. The inner loop, controlled by `j', goes through the lines within the row. As `j' goes from 0 to 4, `i+j' is the `j'-th line in the row, and `i+j+5' is the entry next to it. The output ends up looking something like this: line 1 line 6 line 2 line 7 line 3 line 8 line 4 line 9 line 5 line 10 ... The `printf' format string `%-41s' left-aligns the data and prints it within a fixed-width field. As a final note, an extra blank line is printed at lines 21 and 61, to keep the output lined up on the labels. This is dependent on the particular brand of labels in use when the program was written. You will also note that there are two blank lines at the top and two blank lines at the bottom. The `END' rule arranges to flush the final page of labels; there may not have been an even multiple of 20 labels in the data: # labels.awk --- print mailing labels # Each label is 5 lines of data that may have blank lines. # The label sheets have 2 blank lines at the top and 2 at # the bottom. BEGIN { RS = "" ; MAXLINES = 100 } function printpage( i, j) { if (Nlines <= 0) return printf "\n\n" # header for (i = 1; i <= Nlines; i += 10) { if (i == 21 || i == 61) print "" for (j = 0; j < 5; j++) { if (i + j > MAXLINES) break printf " %-41s %s\n", line[i+j], line[i+j+5] } print "" } printf "\n\n" # footer delete line } # main rule { if (Count >= 20) { printpage() Count = 0 Nlines = 0 } n = split($0, a, "\n") for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) line[++Nlines] = a[i] for (; i <= 5; i++) line[++Nlines] = "" Count++ } END \ { printpage() } ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) "Real world" is defined as "a program actually used to get something done." File: gawk.info, Node: Word Sorting, Next: History Sorting, Prev: Labels Program, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.5 Generating Word-Usage Counts ----------------------------------- When working with large amounts of text, it can be interesting to know how often different words appear. For example, an author may overuse certain words, in which case she might wish to find synonyms to substitute for words that appear too often. This node develops a program for counting words and presenting the frequency information in a useful format. At first glance, a program like this would seem to do the job: # Print list of word frequencies { for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) freq[$i]++ } END { for (word in freq) printf "%s\t%d\n", word, freq[word] } The program relies on `awk''s default field splitting mechanism to break each line up into "words," and uses an associative array named `freq', indexed by each word, to count the number of times the word occurs. In the `END' rule, it prints the counts. This program has several problems that prevent it from being useful on real text files: * The `awk' language considers upper- and lowercase characters to be distinct. Therefore, "bartender" and "Bartender" are not treated as the same word. This is undesirable, since in normal text, words are capitalized if they begin sentences, and a frequency analyzer should not be sensitive to capitalization. * Words are detected using the `awk' convention that fields are separated just by whitespace. Other characters in the input (except newlines) don't have any special meaning to `awk'. This means that punctuation characters count as part of words. * The output does not come out in any useful order. You're more likely to be interested in which words occur most frequently or in having an alphabetized table of how frequently each word occurs. The first problem can be solved by using `tolower()' to remove case distinctions. The second problem can be solved by using `gsub()' to remove punctuation characters. Finally, we solve the third problem by using the system `sort' utility to process the output of the `awk' script. Here is the new version of the program: # wordfreq.awk --- print list of word frequencies { $0 = tolower($0) # remove case distinctions # remove punctuation gsub(/[^[:alnum:]_[:blank:]]/, "", $0) for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) freq[$i]++ } END { for (word in freq) printf "%s\t%d\n", word, freq[word] } Assuming we have saved this program in a file named `wordfreq.awk', and that the data is in `file1', the following pipeline: awk -f wordfreq.awk file1 | sort -k 2nr produces a table of the words appearing in `file1' in order of decreasing frequency. The `awk' program suitably massages the data and produces a word frequency table, which is not ordered. The `awk' script's output is then sorted by the `sort' utility and printed on the screen. The options given to `sort' specify a sort that uses the second field of each input line (skipping one field), that the sort keys should be treated as numeric quantities (otherwise `15' would come before `5'), and that the sorting should be done in descending (reverse) order. The `sort' could even be done from within the program, by changing the `END' action to: END { sort = "sort -k 2nr" for (word in freq) printf "%s\t%d\n", word, freq[word] | sort close(sort) } This way of sorting must be used on systems that do not have true pipes at the command-line (or batch-file) level. See the general operating system documentation for more information on how to use the `sort' program. File: gawk.info, Node: History Sorting, Next: Extract Program, Prev: Word Sorting, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.6 Removing Duplicates from Unsorted Text --------------------------------------------- The `uniq' program (*note Uniq Program::), removes duplicate lines from _sorted_ data. Suppose, however, you need to remove duplicate lines from a data file but that you want to preserve the order the lines are in. A good example of this might be a shell history file. The history file keeps a copy of all the commands you have entered, and it is not unusual to repeat a command several times in a row. Occasionally you might want to compact the history by removing duplicate entries. Yet it is desirable to maintain the order of the original commands. This simple program does the job. It uses two arrays. The `data' array is indexed by the text of each line. For each line, `data[$0]' is incremented. If a particular line has not been seen before, then `data[$0]' is zero. In this case, the text of the line is stored in `lines[count]'. Each element of `lines' is a unique command, and the indices of `lines' indicate the order in which those lines are encountered. The `END' rule simply prints out the lines, in order: # histsort.awk --- compact a shell history file # Thanks to Byron Rakitzis for the general idea { if (data[$0]++ == 0) lines[++count] = $0 } END { for (i = 1; i <= count; i++) print lines[i] } This program also provides a foundation for generating other useful information. For example, using the following `print' statement in the `END' rule indicates how often a particular command is used: print data[lines[i]], lines[i] This works because `data[$0]' is incremented each time a line is seen. File: gawk.info, Node: Extract Program, Next: Simple Sed, Prev: History Sorting, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.7 Extracting Programs from Texinfo Source Files ---------------------------------------------------- The nodes *note Library Functions::, and *note Sample Programs::, are the top level nodes for a large number of `awk' programs. If you want to experiment with these programs, it is tedious to have to type them in by hand. Here we present a program that can extract parts of a Texinfo input file into separate files. This Info file is written in Texinfo (http://texinfo.org), the GNU project's document formatting language. A single Texinfo source file can be used to produce both printed and online documentation. The Texinfo language is described fully, starting with *note (Texinfo)Top:: texinfo,Texinfo--The GNU Documentation Format. For our purposes, it is enough to know three things about Texinfo input files: * The "at" symbol (`@') is special in Texinfo, much as the backslash (`\') is in C or `awk'. Literal `@' symbols are represented in Texinfo source files as `@@'. * Comments start with either `@c' or `@comment'. The file-extraction program works by using special comments that start at the beginning of a line. * Lines containing `@group' and `@end group' commands bracket example text that should not be split across a page boundary. (Unfortunately, TeX isn't always smart enough to do things exactly right, so we have to give it some help.) The following program, `extract.awk', reads through a Texinfo source file and does two things, based on the special comments. Upon seeing `@c system ...', it runs a command, by extracting the command text from the control line and passing it on to the `system()' function (*note I/O Functions::). Upon seeing `@c file FILENAME', each subsequent line is sent to the file FILENAME, until `@c endfile' is encountered. The rules in `extract.awk' match either `@c' or `@comment' by letting the `omment' part be optional. Lines containing `@group' and `@end group' are simply removed. `extract.awk' uses the `join()' library function (*note Join Function::). The example programs in the online Texinfo source for `GAWK: Effective AWK Programming' (`gawk.texi') have all been bracketed inside `file' and `endfile' lines. The `gawk' distribution uses a copy of `extract.awk' to extract the sample programs and install many of them in a standard directory where `gawk' can find them. The Texinfo file looks something like this: ... This program has a @code{BEGIN} rule, that prints a nice message: @example @c file examples/messages.awk BEGIN @{ print "Don't panic!" @} @c end file @end example It also prints some final advice: @example @c file examples/messages.awk END @{ print "Always avoid bored archeologists!" @} @c end file @end example ... `extract.awk' begins by setting `IGNORECASE' to one, so that mixed upper- and lowercase letters in the directives won't matter. The first rule handles calling `system()', checking that a command is given (`NF' is at least three) and also checking that the command exits with a zero exit status, signifying OK: # extract.awk --- extract files and run programs # from texinfo files BEGIN { IGNORECASE = 1 } /^@c(omment)?[ \t]+system/ \ { if (NF < 3) { e = (FILENAME ":" FNR) e = (e ": badly formed `system' line") print e > "/dev/stderr" next } $1 = "" $2 = "" stat = system($0) if (stat != 0) { e = (FILENAME ":" FNR) e = (e ": warning: system returned " stat) print e > "/dev/stderr" } } The variable `e' is used so that the rule fits nicely on the screen. The second rule handles moving data into files. It verifies that a file name is given in the directive. If the file named is not the current file, then the current file is closed. Keeping the current file open until a new file is encountered allows the use of the `>' redirection for printing the contents, keeping open file management simple. The `for' loop does the work. It reads lines using `getline' (*note Getline::). For an unexpected end of file, it calls the `unexpected_eof()' function. If the line is an "endfile" line, then it breaks out of the loop. If the line is an `@group' or `@end group' line, then it ignores it and goes on to the next line. Similarly, comments within examples are also ignored. Most of the work is in the following few lines. If the line has no `@' symbols, the program can print it directly. Otherwise, each leading `@' must be stripped off. To remove the `@' symbols, the line is split into separate elements of the array `a', using the `split()' function (*note String Functions::). The `@' symbol is used as the separator character. Each element of `a' that is empty indicates two successive `@' symbols in the original line. For each two empty elements (`@@' in the original file), we have to add a single `@' symbol back in.(1) When the processing of the array is finished, `join()' is called with the value of `SUBSEP', to rejoin the pieces back into a single line. That line is then printed to the output file: /^@c(omment)?[ \t]+file/ \ { if (NF != 3) { e = (FILENAME ":" FNR ": badly formed `file' line") print e > "/dev/stderr" next } if ($3 != curfile) { if (curfile != "") close(curfile) curfile = $3 } for (;;) { if ((getline line) <= 0) unexpected_eof() if (line ~ /^@c(omment)?[ \t]+endfile/) break else if (line ~ /^@(end[ \t]+)?group/) continue else if (line ~ /^@c(omment+)?[ \t]+/) continue if (index(line, "@") == 0) { print line > curfile continue } n = split(line, a, "@") # if a[1] == "", means leading @, # don't add one back in. for (i = 2; i <= n; i++) { if (a[i] == "") { # was an @@ a[i] = "@" if (a[i+1] == "") i++ } } print join(a, 1, n, SUBSEP) > curfile } } An important thing to note is the use of the `>' redirection. Output done with `>' only opens the file once; it stays open and subsequent output is appended to the file (*note Redirection::). This makes it easy to mix program text and explanatory prose for the same sample source file (as has been done here!) without any hassle. The file is only closed when a new data file name is encountered or at the end of the input file. Finally, the function `unexpected_eof()' prints an appropriate error message and then exits. The `END' rule handles the final cleanup, closing the open file: function unexpected_eof() { printf("%s:%d: unexpected EOF or error\n", FILENAME, FNR) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } END { if (curfile) close(curfile) } ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This program was written before `gawk' had the `gensub()' function. Consider how you might use it to simplify the code. File: gawk.info, Node: Simple Sed, Next: Igawk Program, Prev: Extract Program, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.8 A Simple Stream Editor ----------------------------- The `sed' utility is a stream editor, a program that reads a stream of data, makes changes to it, and passes it on. It is often used to make global changes to a large file or to a stream of data generated by a pipeline of commands. While `sed' is a complicated program in its own right, its most common use is to perform global substitutions in the middle of a pipeline: command1 < orig.data | sed 's/old/new/g' | command2 > result Here, `s/old/new/g' tells `sed' to look for the regexp `old' on each input line and globally replace it with the text `new', i.e., all the occurrences on a line. This is similar to `awk''s `gsub()' function (*note String Functions::). The following program, `awksed.awk', accepts at least two command-line arguments: the pattern to look for and the text to replace it with. Any additional arguments are treated as data file names to process. If none are provided, the standard input is used: # awksed.awk --- do s/foo/bar/g using just print # Thanks to Michael Brennan for the idea function usage() { print "usage: awksed pat repl [files...]" > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } BEGIN { # validate arguments if (ARGC < 3) usage() RS = ARGV[1] ORS = ARGV[2] # don't use arguments as files ARGV[1] = ARGV[2] = "" } # look ma, no hands! { if (RT == "") printf "%s", $0 else print } The program relies on `gawk''s ability to have `RS' be a regexp, as well as on the setting of `RT' to the actual text that terminates the record (*note Records::). The idea is to have `RS' be the pattern to look for. `gawk' automatically sets `$0' to the text between matches of the pattern. This is text that we want to keep, unmodified. Then, by setting `ORS' to the replacement text, a simple `print' statement outputs the text we want to keep, followed by the replacement text. There is one wrinkle to this scheme, which is what to do if the last record doesn't end with text that matches `RS'. Using a `print' statement unconditionally prints the replacement text, which is not correct. However, if the file did not end in text that matches `RS', `RT' is set to the null string. In this case, we can print `$0' using `printf' (*note Printf::). The `BEGIN' rule handles the setup, checking for the right number of arguments and calling `usage()' if there is a problem. Then it sets `RS' and `ORS' from the command-line arguments and sets `ARGV[1]' and `ARGV[2]' to the null string, so that they are not treated as file names (*note ARGC and ARGV::). The `usage()' function prints an error message and exits. Finally, the single rule handles the printing scheme outlined above, using `print' or `printf' as appropriate, depending upon the value of `RT'. File: gawk.info, Node: Igawk Program, Next: Anagram Program, Prev: Simple Sed, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.9 An Easy Way to Use Library Functions ------------------------------------------- In *note Include Files::, we saw how `gawk' provides a built-in file-inclusion capability. However, this is a `gawk' extension. This minor node provides the motivation for making file inclusion available for standard `awk', and shows how to do it using a combination of shell and `awk' programming. Using library functions in `awk' can be very beneficial. It encourages code reuse and the writing of general functions. Programs are smaller and therefore clearer. However, using library functions is only easy when writing `awk' programs; it is painful when running them, requiring multiple `-f' options. If `gawk' is unavailable, then so too is the `AWKPATH' environment variable and the ability to put `awk' functions into a library directory (*note Options::). It would be nice to be able to write programs in the following manner: # library functions @include getopt.awk @include join.awk ... # main program BEGIN { while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "a:b:cde")) != -1) ... ... } The following program, `igawk.sh', provides this service. It simulates `gawk''s searching of the `AWKPATH' variable and also allows "nested" includes; i.e., a file that is included with `@include' can contain further `@include' statements. `igawk' makes an effort to only include files once, so that nested includes don't accidentally include a library function twice. `igawk' should behave just like `gawk' externally. This means it should accept all of `gawk''s command-line arguments, including the ability to have multiple source files specified via `-f', and the ability to mix command-line and library source files. The program is written using the POSIX Shell (`sh') command language.(1) It works as follows: 1. Loop through the arguments, saving anything that doesn't represent `awk' source code for later, when the expanded program is run. 2. For any arguments that do represent `awk' text, put the arguments into a shell variable that will be expanded. There are two cases: a. Literal text, provided with `--source' or `--source='. This text is just appended directly. b. Source file names, provided with `-f'. We use a neat trick and append `@include FILENAME' to the shell variable's contents. Since the file-inclusion program works the way `gawk' does, this gets the text of the file included into the program at the correct point. 3. Run an `awk' program (naturally) over the shell variable's contents to expand `@include' statements. The expanded program is placed in a second shell variable. 4. Run the expanded program with `gawk' and any other original command-line arguments that the user supplied (such as the data file names). This program uses shell variables extensively: for storing command-line arguments, the text of the `awk' program that will expand the user's program, for the user's original program, and for the expanded program. Doing so removes some potential problems that might arise were we to use temporary files instead, at the cost of making the script somewhat more complicated. The initial part of the program turns on shell tracing if the first argument is `debug'. The next part loops through all the command-line arguments. There are several cases of interest: `--' This ends the arguments to `igawk'. Anything else should be passed on to the user's `awk' program without being evaluated. `-W' This indicates that the next option is specific to `gawk'. To make argument processing easier, the `-W' is appended to the front of the remaining arguments and the loop continues. (This is an `sh' programming trick. Don't worry about it if you are not familiar with `sh'.) `-v, -F' These are saved and passed on to `gawk'. `-f, --file, --file=, -Wfile=' The file name is appended to the shell variable `program' with an `@include' statement. The `expr' utility is used to remove the leading option part of the argument (e.g., `--file='). (Typical `sh' usage would be to use the `echo' and `sed' utilities to do this work. Unfortunately, some versions of `echo' evaluate escape sequences in their arguments, possibly mangling the program text. Using `expr' avoids this problem.) `--source, --source=, -Wsource=' The source text is appended to `program'. `--version, -Wversion' `igawk' prints its version number, runs `gawk --version' to get the `gawk' version information, and then exits. If none of the `-f', `--file', `-Wfile', `--source', or `-Wsource' arguments are supplied, then the first nonoption argument should be the `awk' program. If there are no command-line arguments left, `igawk' prints an error message and exits. Otherwise, the first argument is appended to `program'. In any case, after the arguments have been processed, `program' contains the complete text of the original `awk' program. The program is as follows: #! /bin/sh # igawk --- like gawk but do @include processing if [ "$1" = debug ] then set -x shift fi # A literal newline, so that program text is formatted correctly n=' ' # Initialize variables to empty program= opts= while [ $# -ne 0 ] # loop over arguments do case $1 in --) shift break ;; -W) shift # The ${x?'message here'} construct prints a # diagnostic if $x is the null string set -- -W"${@?'missing operand'}" continue ;; -[vF]) opts="$opts $1 '${2?'missing operand'}'" shift ;; -[vF]*) opts="$opts '$1'" ;; -f) program="$program$n@include ${2?'missing operand'}" shift ;; -f*) f=$(expr "$1" : '-f$.*$') program="$program$n@include $f" ;; -[W-]file=*) f=$(expr "$1" : '-.file=$.*$') program="$program$n@include $f" ;; -[W-]file) program="$program$n@include ${2?'missing operand'}" shift ;; -[W-]source=*) t=$(expr "$1" : '-.source=$.*$') program="$program$n$t" ;; -[W-]source) program="$program$n${2?'missing operand'}" shift ;; -[W-]version) echo igawk: version 3.0 1>&2 gawk --version exit 0 ;; -[W-]*) opts="$opts '$1'" ;; *) break ;; esac shift done if [ -z "$program" ] then program=${1?'missing program'} shift fi # At this point, `program' has the program. The `awk' program to process `@include' directives is stored in the shell variable `expand_prog'. Doing this keeps the shell script readable. The `awk' program reads through the user's program, one line at a time, using `getline' (*note Getline::). The input file names and `@include' statements are managed using a stack. As each `@include' is encountered, the current file name is "pushed" onto the stack and the file named in the `@include' directive becomes the current file name. As each file is finished, the stack is "popped," and the previous input file becomes the current input file again. The process is started by making the original file the first one on the stack. The `pathto()' function does the work of finding the full path to a file. It simulates `gawk''s behavior when searching the `AWKPATH' environment variable (*note AWKPATH Variable::). If a file name has a `/' in it, no path search is done. Otherwise, the file name is concatenated with the name of each directory in the path, and an attempt is made to open the generated file name. The only way to test if a file can be read in `awk' is to go ahead and try to read it with `getline'; this is what `pathto()' does.(2) If the file can be read, it is closed and the file name is returned: expand_prog=' function pathto(file, i, t, junk) { if (index(file, "/") != 0) return file for (i = 1; i <= ndirs; i++) { t = (pathlist[i] "/" file) if ((getline junk < t) > 0) { # found it close(t) return t } } return "" } The main program is contained inside one `BEGIN' rule. The first thing it does is set up the `pathlist' array that `pathto()' uses. After splitting the path on `:', null elements are replaced with `"."', which represents the current directory: BEGIN { path = ENVIRON["AWKPATH"] ndirs = split(path, pathlist, ":") for (i = 1; i <= ndirs; i++) { if (pathlist[i] == "") pathlist[i] = "." } The stack is initialized with `ARGV[1]', which will be `/dev/stdin'. The main loop comes next. Input lines are read in succession. Lines that do not start with `@include' are printed verbatim. If the line does start with `@include', the file name is in `$2'. `pathto()' is called to generate the full path. If it cannot, then the program prints an error message and continues. The next thing to check is if the file is included already. The `processed' array is indexed by the full file name of each included file and it tracks this information for us. If the file is seen again, a warning message is printed. Otherwise, the new file name is pushed onto the stack and processing continues. Finally, when `getline' encounters the end of the input file, the file is closed and the stack is popped. When `stackptr' is less than zero, the program is done: stackptr = 0 input[stackptr] = ARGV[1] # ARGV[1] is first file for (; stackptr >= 0; stackptr--) { while ((getline < input[stackptr]) > 0) { if (tolower($1) != "@include") { print continue } fpath = pathto($2) if (fpath == "") { printf("igawk:%s:%d: cannot find %s\n", input[stackptr], FNR, $2) > "/dev/stderr" continue } if (! (fpath in processed)) { processed[fpath] = input[stackptr] input[++stackptr] = fpath # push onto stack } else print $2, "included in", input[stackptr], "already included in", processed[fpath] > "/dev/stderr" } close(input[stackptr]) } }' # close quote ends `expand_prog' variable processed_program=$(gawk -- "$expand_prog" /dev/stdin << EOF $program EOF ) The shell construct `COMMAND << MARKER' is called a "here document". Everything in the shell script up to the MARKER is fed to COMMAND as input. The shell processes the contents of the here document for variable and command substitution (and possibly other things as well, depending upon the shell). The shell construct `$(...)' is called "command substitution". The output of the command inside the parentheses is substituted into the command line. Because the result is used in a variable assignment, it is saved as a single string, even if the results contain whitespace. The expanded program is saved in the variable `processed_program'. It's done in these steps: 1. Run `gawk' with the `@include'-processing program (the value of the `expand_prog' shell variable) on standard input. 2. Standard input is the contents of the user's program, from the shell variable `program'. Its contents are fed to `gawk' via a here document. 3. The results of this processing are saved in the shell variable `processed_program' by using command substitution. The last step is to call `gawk' with the expanded program, along with the original options and command-line arguments that the user supplied. eval gawk $opts -- '"$processed_program"' '"$@"' The `eval' command is a shell construct that reruns the shell's parsing process. This keeps things properly quoted. This version of `igawk' represents my fifth version of this program. There are four key simplifications that make the program work better: * Using `@include' even for the files named with `-f' makes building the initial collected `awk' program much simpler; all the `@include' processing can be done once. * Not trying to save the line read with `getline' in the `pathto()' function when testing for the file's accessibility for use with the main program simplifies things considerably. * Using a `getline' loop in the `BEGIN' rule does it all in one place. It is not necessary to call out to a separate loop for processing nested `@include' statements. * Instead of saving the expanded program in a temporary file, putting it in a shell variable avoids some potential security problems. This has the disadvantage that the script relies upon more features of the `sh' language, making it harder to follow for those who aren't familiar with `sh'. Also, this program illustrates that it is often worthwhile to combine `sh' and `awk' programming together. You can usually accomplish quite a lot, without having to resort to low-level programming in C or C++, and it is frequently easier to do certain kinds of string and argument manipulation using the shell than it is in `awk'. Finally, `igawk' shows that it is not always necessary to add new features to a program; they can often be layered on top. As an additional example of this, consider the idea of having two files in a directory in the search path: `default.awk' This file contains a set of default library functions, such as `getopt()' and `assert()'. `site.awk' This file contains library functions that are specific to a site or installation; i.e., locally developed functions. Having a separate file allows `default.awk' to change with new `gawk' releases, without requiring the system administrator to update it each time by adding the local functions. One user suggested that `gawk' be modified to automatically read these files upon startup. Instead, it would be very simple to modify `igawk' to do this. Since `igawk' can process nested `@include' directives, `default.awk' could simply contain `@include' statements for the desired library functions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Fully explaining the `sh' language is beyond the scope of this book. We provide some minimal explanations, but see a good shell programming book if you wish to understand things in more depth. (2) On some very old versions of `awk', the test `getline junk < t' can loop forever if the file exists but is empty. Caveat emptor. File: gawk.info, Node: Anagram Program, Next: Signature Program, Prev: Igawk Program, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.10 Finding Anagrams From A Dictionary ------------------------------------------ An interesting programming challenge is to search for "anagrams" in a word list (such as `/usr/share/dict/words' on many GNU/Linux systems). One word is an anagram of another if both words contain the same letters (for example, "babbling" and "blabbing"). An elegant algorithm is presented in Column 2, Problem C of Jon Bentley's `Programming Pearls', second edition. The idea is to give words that are anagrams a common signature, sort all the words together by their signature, and then print them. Dr. Bentley observes that taking the letters in each word and sorting them produces that common signature. The following program uses arrays of arrays to bring together words with the same signature and array sorting to print the words in sorted order. # anagram.awk --- An implementation of the anagram finding algorithm # from Jon Bentley's "Programming Pearls", 2nd edition. # Addison Wesley, 2000, ISBN 0-201-65788-0. # Column 2, Problem C, section 2.8, pp 18-20. /'s$/ { next } # Skip possessives The program starts with a header, and then a rule to skip possessives in the dictionary file. The next rule builds up the data structure. The first dimension of the array is indexed by the signature; the second dimension is the word itself: { key = word2key($1) # Build signature data[key][$1] = $1 # Store word with signature } The `word2key()' function creates the signature. It splits the word apart into individual letters, sorts the letters, and then joins them back together: # word2key --- split word apart into letters, sort, joining back together function word2key(word, a, i, n, result) { n = split(word, a, "") asort(a) for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) result = result a[i] return result } Finally, the `END' rule traverses the array and prints out the anagram lists. It sends the output to the system `sort' command, since otherwise the anagrams would appear in arbitrary order: END { sort = "sort" for (key in data) { # Sort words with same key nwords = asorti(data[key], words) if (nwords == 1) continue # And print. Minor glitch: trailing space at end of each line for (j = 1; j <= nwords; j++) printf("%s ", words[j]) | sort print "" | sort } close(sort) } Here is some partial output when the program is run: $ gawk -f anagram.awk /usr/share/dict/words | grep '^b' ... babbled blabbed babbler blabber brabble babblers blabbers brabbles babbling blabbing babbly blabby babel bable babels beslab babery yabber ... File: gawk.info, Node: Signature Program, Prev: Anagram Program, Up: Miscellaneous Programs 13.3.11 And Now For Something Completely Different -------------------------------------------------- The following program was written by Davide Brini and is published on his website (http://backreference.org/2011/02/03/obfuscated-awk/). It serves as his signature in the Usenet group `comp.lang.awk'. He supplies the following copyright terms: Copyright (C) 2008 Davide Brini Copying and distribution of the code published in this page, with or without modification, are permitted in any medium without royalty provided the copyright notice and this notice are preserved. Here is the program: awk 'BEGIN{O="~"~"~";o="=="=="==";o+=+o;x=O""O;while(X++<=x+o+o)c=c"%c"; printf c,(x-O)*(x-O),x*(x-o)-o,x*(x-O)+x-O-o,+x*(x-O)-x+o,X*(o*o+O)+x-O, X*(X-x)-o*o,(x+X)*o*o+o,x*(X-x)-O-O,x-O+(O+o+X+x)*(o+O),X*X-X*(x-O)-x+O, O+X*(o*(o+O)+O),+x+O+X*o,x*(x-o),(o+X+x)*o*o-(x-O-O),O+(X-x)*(X+O),x-O}' We leave it to you to determine what the program does. File: gawk.info, Node: Debugger, Next: Language History, Prev: Sample Programs, Up: Top 14 `dgawk': The `awk' Debugger ****************************** It would be nice if computer programs worked perfectly the first time they were run, but in real life, this rarely happens for programs of any complexity. Thus, most programming languages have facilities available for "debugging" programs, and now `awk' is no exception. The `dgawk' debugger is purposely modeled after the GNU Debugger (GDB) (http://www.gnu.org/software/gdb/) command-line debugger. If you are familiar with GDB, learning `dgawk' is easy. * Menu: * Debugging:: Introduction to `dgawk'. * Sample dgawk session:: Sample `dgawk' session. * List of Debugger Commands:: Main `dgawk' Commands. * Readline Support:: Readline Support. * Dgawk Limitations:: Limitations and future plans. File: gawk.info, Node: Debugging, Next: Sample dgawk session, Up: Debugger 14.1 Introduction to `dgawk' ============================ This minor node introduces debugging in general and begins the discussion of debugging in `gawk'. * Menu: * Debugging Concepts:: Debugging In General. * Debugging Terms:: Additional Debugging Concepts. * Awk Debugging:: Awk Debugging. File: gawk.info, Node: Debugging Concepts, Next: Debugging Terms, Up: Debugging 14.1.1 Debugging In General --------------------------- (If you have used debuggers in other languages, you may want to skip ahead to the next section on the specific features of the `awk' debugger.) Of course, a debugging program cannot remove bugs for you, since it has no way of knowing what you or your users consider a "bug" and what is a "feature." (Sometimes, we humans have a hard time with this ourselves.) In that case, what can you expect from such a tool? The answer to that depends on the language being debugged, but in general, you can expect at least the following: * The ability to watch a program execute its instructions one by one, giving you, the programmer, the opportunity to think about what is happening on a time scale of seconds, minutes, or hours, rather than the nanosecond time scale at which the code usually runs. * The opportunity to not only passively observe the operation of your program, but to control it and try different paths of execution, without having to change your source files. * The chance to see the values of data in the program at any point in execution, and also to change that data on the fly, to see how that affects what happens afterwards. (This often includes the ability to look at internal data structures besides the variables you actually defined in your code.) * The ability to obtain additional information about your program's state or even its internal structure. All of these tools provide a great amount of help in using your own skills and understanding of the goals of your program to find where it is going wrong (or, for that matter, to better comprehend a perfectly functional program that you or someone else wrote). File: gawk.info, Node: Debugging Terms, Next: Awk Debugging, Prev: Debugging Concepts, Up: Debugging 14.1.2 Additional Debugging Concepts ------------------------------------ Before diving in to the details, we need to introduce several important concepts that apply to just about all debuggers, including `dgawk'. The following list defines terms used throughout the rest of this major node. "Stack Frame" Programs generally call functions during the course of their execution. One function can call another, or a function can call itself (recursion). You can view the chain of called functions (main program calls A, which calls B, which calls C), as a stack of executing functions: the currently running function is the topmost one on the stack, and when it finishes (returns), the next one down then becomes the active function. Such a stack is termed a "call stack". For each function on the call stack, the system maintains a data area that contains the function's parameters, local variables, and return value, as well as any other "bookkeeping" information needed to manage the call stack. This data area is termed a "stack frame". `gawk' also follows this model, and `dgawk' gives you access to the call stack and to each stack frame. You can see the call stack, as well as from where each function on the stack was invoked. Commands that print the call stack print information about each stack frame (as detailed later on). "Breakpoint" During debugging, you often wish to let the program run until it reaches a certain point, and then continue execution from there one statement (or instruction) at a time. The way to do this is to set a "breakpoint" within the program. A breakpoint is where the execution of the program should break off (stop), so that you can take over control of the program's execution. You can add and remove as many breakpoints as you like. "Watchpoint" A watchpoint is similar to a breakpoint. The difference is that breakpoints are oriented around the code: stop when a certain point in the code is reached. A watchpoint, however, specifies that program execution should stop when a _data value_ is changed. This is useful, since sometimes it happens that a variable receives an erroneous value, and it's hard to track down where this happens just by looking at the code. By using a watchpoint, you can stop whenever a variable is assigned to, and usually find the errant code quite quickly. File: gawk.info, Node: Awk Debugging, Prev: Debugging Terms, Up: Debugging 14.1.3 Awk Debugging -------------------- Debugging an `awk' program has some specific aspects that are not shared with other programming languages. First of all, the fact that `awk' programs usually take input line-by-line from a file or files and operate on those lines using specific rules makes it especially useful to organize viewing the execution of the program in terms of these rules. As we will see, each `awk' rule is treated almost like a function call, with its own specific block of instructions. In addition, since `awk' is by design a very concise language, it is easy to lose sight of everything that is going on "inside" each line of `awk' code. The debugger provides the opportunity to look at the individual primitive instructions carried out by the higher-level `awk' commands. File: gawk.info, Node: Sample dgawk session, Next: List of Debugger Commands, Prev: Debugging, Up: Debugger 14.2 Sample `dgawk' session =========================== In order to illustrate the use of `dgawk', let's look at a sample debugging session. We will use the `awk' implementation of the POSIX `uniq' command described earlier (*note Uniq Program::) as our example. * Menu: * dgawk invocation:: `dgawk' Invocation. * Finding The Bug:: Finding The Bug. File: gawk.info, Node: dgawk invocation, Next: Finding The Bug, Up: Sample dgawk session 14.2.1 `dgawk' Invocation ------------------------- Starting `dgawk' is exactly like running `awk'. The file(s) containing the program and any supporting code are given on the command line as arguments to one or more `-f' options. (`dgawk' is not designed to debug command-line programs, only programs contained in files.) In our case, we call `dgawk' like this: $ dgawk -f getopt.awk -f join.awk -f uniq.awk inputfile where both `getopt.awk' and `uniq.awk' are in `$AWKPATH'. (Experienced users of GDB or similar debuggers should note that this syntax is slightly different from what they are used to. With `dgawk', the arguments for running the program are given in the command line to the debugger rather than as part of the `run' command at the debugger prompt.) Instead of immediately running the program on `inputfile', as `gawk' would ordinarily do, `dgawk' merely loads all the program source files, compiles them internally, and then gives us a prompt: dgawk> from which we can issue commands to the debugger. At this point, no code has been executed. File: gawk.info, Node: Finding The Bug, Prev: dgawk invocation, Up: Sample dgawk session 14.2.2 Finding The Bug ---------------------- Let's say that we are having a problem using (a faulty version of) `uniq.awk' in the "field-skipping" mode, and it doesn't seem to be catching lines which should be identical when skipping the first field, such as: awk is a wonderful program! gawk is a wonderful program! This could happen if we were thinking (C-like) of the fields in a record as being numbered in a zero-based fashion, so instead of the lines: clast = join(alast, fcount+1, n) cline = join(aline, fcount+1, m) we wrote: clast = join(alast, fcount, n) cline = join(aline, fcount, m) The first thing we usually want to do when trying to investigate a problem like this is to put a breakpoint in the program so that we can watch it at work and catch what it is doing wrong. A reasonable spot for a breakpoint in `uniq.awk' is at the beginning of the function `are_equal()', which compares the current line with the previous one. To set the breakpoint, use the `b' (breakpoint) command: dgawk> b are_equal -| Breakpoint 1 set at file `awklib/eg/prog/uniq.awk', line 64 The debugger tells us the file and line number where the breakpoint is. Now type `r' or `run' and the program runs until it hits the breakpoint for the first time: dgawk> r -| Starting program: -| Stopping in Rule ... -| Breakpoint 1, are_equal(n, m, clast, cline, alast, aline) at `awklib/eg/prog/uniq.awk':64 -| 64 if (fcount == 0 && charcount == 0) dgawk> Now we can look at what's going on inside our program. First of all, let's see how we got to where we are. At the prompt, we type `bt' (short for "backtrace"), and `dgawk' responds with a listing of the current stack frames: dgawk> bt -| #0 are_equal(n, m, clast, cline, alast, aline) at `awklib/eg/prog/uniq.awk':69 -| #1 in main() at `awklib/eg/prog/uniq.awk':89 This tells us that `are_equal()' was called by the main program at line 89 of `uniq.awk'. (This is not a big surprise, since this is the only call to `are_equal()' in the program, but in more complex programs, knowing who called a function and with what parameters can be the key to finding the source of the problem.) Now that we're in `are_equal()', we can start looking at the values of some variables. Let's say we type `p n' (`p' is short for "print"). We would expect to see the value of `n', a parameter to `are_equal()'. Actually, `dgawk' gives us: dgawk> p n -| n = untyped variable In this case, `n' is an uninitialized local variable, since the function was called without arguments (*note Function Calls::). A more useful variable to display might be the current record: dgawk> p $0 -| $0 = string ("gawk is a wonderful program!") This might be a bit puzzling at first since this is the second line of our test input above. Let's look at `NR': dgawk> p NR -| NR = number (2) So we can see that `are_equal()' was only called for the second record of the file. Of course, this is because our program contained a rule for `NR == 1': NR == 1 { last = $0 next } OK, let's just check that that rule worked correctly: dgawk> p last -| last = string ("awk is a wonderful program!") Everything we have done so far has verified that the program has worked as planned, up to and including the call to `are_equal()', so the problem must be inside this function. To investigate further, we must begin "stepping through" the lines of `are_equal()'. We start by typing `n' (for "next"): dgawk> n -| 67 if (fcount > 0) { This tells us that `gawk' is now ready to execute line 67, which decides whether to give the lines the special "field skipping" treatment indicated by the `-f' command-line option. (Notice that we skipped from where we were before at line 64 to here, since the condition in line 64 if (fcount == 0 && charcount == 0) was false.) Continuing to step, we now get to the splitting of the current and last records: dgawk> n -| 68 n = split(last, alast) dgawk> n -| 69 m = split($0, aline) At this point, we should be curious to see what our records were split into, so we try to look: dgawk> p n m alast aline -| n = number (5) -| m = number (5) -| alast = array, 5 elements -| aline = array, 5 elements (The `p' command can take more than one argument, similar to `awk''s `print' statement.) This is kind of disappointing, though. All we found out is that there are five elements in each of our arrays. Useful enough (we now know that none of the words were accidentally left out), but what if we want to see inside the array? The first choice would be to use subscripts: dgawk> p alast[0] -| "0" not in array `alast' Oops! dgawk> p alast[1] -| alast["1"] = string ("awk") This would be kind of slow for a 100-member array, though, so `dgawk' provides a shortcut (reminiscent of another language not to be mentioned): dgawk> p @alast -| alast["1"] = string ("awk") -| alast["2"] = string ("is") -| alast["3"] = string ("a") -| alast["4"] = string ("wonderful") -| alast["5"] = string ("program!") It looks like we got this far OK. Let's take another step or two: dgawk> n -| 70 clast = join(alast, fcount, n) dgawk> n -| 71 cline = join(aline, fcount, m) Well, here we are at our error (sorry to spoil the suspense). What we had in mind was to join the fields starting from the second one to make the virtual record to compare, and if the first field was numbered zero, this would work. Let's look at what we've got: dgawk> p cline clast -| cline = string ("gawk is a wonderful program!") -| clast = string ("awk is a wonderful program!") Hey, those look pretty familiar! They're just our original, unaltered, input records. A little thinking (the human brain is still the best debugging tool), and we realize that we were off by one! We get out of `dgawk': dgawk> q -| The program is running. Exit anyway (y/n)? y Then we get into an editor: clast = join(alast, fcount+1, n) cline = join(aline, fcount+1, m) and problem solved! File: gawk.info, Node: List of Debugger Commands, Next: Readline Support, Prev: Sample dgawk session, Up: Debugger 14.3 Main `dgawk' Commands ========================== The `dgawk' command set can be divided into the following categories: * Breakpoint control * Execution control * Viewing and changing data * Working with the stack * Getting information * Miscellaneous Each of these are discussed in the following subsections. In the following descriptions, commands which may be abbreviated show the abbreviation on a second description line. A `dgawk' command name may also be truncated if that partial name is unambiguous. `dgawk' has the built-in capability to automatically repeat the previous command when just hitting <Enter>. This works for the commands `list', `next', `nexti', `step', `stepi' and `continue' executed without any argument. * Menu: * Breakpoint Control:: Control of breakpoints. * Dgawk Execution Control:: Control of execution. * Viewing And Changing Data:: Viewing and changing data. * Dgawk Stack:: Dealing with the stack. * Dgawk Info:: Obtaining information about the program and the debugger state. * Miscellaneous Dgawk Commands:: Miscellaneous Commands. File: gawk.info, Node: Breakpoint Control, Next: Dgawk Execution Control, Up: List of Debugger Commands 14.3.1 Control Of Breakpoints ----------------------------- As we saw above, the first thing you probably want to do in a debugging session is to get your breakpoints set up, since otherwise your program will just run as if it was not under the debugger. The commands for controlling breakpoints are: `break' [[FILENAME`:']N | FUNCTION] [`"EXPRESSION"'] `b' [[FILENAME`:']N | FUNCTION] [`"EXPRESSION"'] Without any argument, set a breakpoint at the next instruction to be executed in the selected stack frame. Arguments can be one of the following: N Set a breakpoint at line number N in the current source file. FILENAME`:'N Set a breakpoint at line number N in source file FILENAME. FUNCTION Set a breakpoint at entry to (the first instruction of) function FUNCTION. Each breakpoint is assigned a number which can be used to delete it from the breakpoint list using the `delete' command. With a breakpoint, you may also supply a condition. This is an `awk' expression (enclosed in double quotes) that `dgawk' evaluates whenever the breakpoint is reached. If the condition is true, then `dgawk' stops execution and prompts for a command. Otherwise, `dgawk' continues executing the program. `clear' [[FILENAME`:']N | FUNCTION] Without any argument, delete any breakpoint at the next instruction to be executed in the selected stack frame. If the program stops at a breakpoint, this deletes that breakpoint so that the program does not stop at that location again. Arguments can be one of the following: N Delete breakpoint(s) set at line number N in the current source file. FILENAME`:'N Delete breakpoint(s) set at line number N in source file FILENAME. FUNCTION Delete breakpoint(s) set at entry to function FUNCTION. `condition' N `"EXPRESSION"' Add a condition to existing breakpoint or watchpoint N. The condition is an `awk' expression that `dgawk' evaluates whenever the breakpoint or watchpoint is reached. If the condition is true, then `dgawk' stops execution and prompts for a command. Otherwise, `dgawk' continues executing the program. If the condition expression is not specified, any existing condition is removed; i.e., the breakpoint or watchpoint is made unconditional. `delete' [N1 N2 ...] [N-M] `d' [N1 N2 ...] [N-M] Delete specified breakpoints or a range of breakpoints. Deletes all defined breakpoints if no argument is supplied. `disable' [N1 N2 ... | N-M] Disable specified breakpoints or a range of breakpoints. Without any argument, disables all breakpoints. `enable' [`del' | `once'] [N1 N2 ...] [N-M] `e' [`del' | `once'] [N1 N2 ...] [N-M] Enable specified breakpoints or a range of breakpoints. Without any argument, enables all breakpoints. Optionally, you can specify how to enable the breakpoint: `del' Enable the breakpoint(s) temporarily, then delete it when the program stops at the breakpoint. `once' Enable the breakpoint(s) temporarily, then disable it when the program stops at the breakpoint. `ignore' N COUNT Ignore breakpoint number N the next COUNT times it is hit. `tbreak' [[FILENAME`:']N | FUNCTION] `t' [[FILENAME`:']N | FUNCTION] Set a temporary breakpoint (enabled for only one stop). The arguments are the same as for `break'. File: gawk.info, Node: Dgawk Execution Control, Next: Viewing And Changing Data, Prev: Breakpoint Control, Up: List of Debugger Commands 14.3.2 Control of Execution --------------------------- Now that your breakpoints are ready, you can start running the program and observing its behavior. There are more commands for controlling execution of the program than we saw in our earlier example: `commands' [N] `silent' ... `end' Set a list of commands to be executed upon stopping at a breakpoint or watchpoint. N is the breakpoint or watchpoint number. Without a number, the last one set is used. The actual commands follow, starting on the next line, and terminated by the `end' command. If the command `silent' is in the list, the usual messages about stopping at a breakpoint and the source line are not printed. Any command in the list that resumes execution (e.g., `continue') terminates the list (an implicit `end'), and subsequent commands are ignored. For example: dgawk> commands > silent > printf "A silent breakpoint; i = %d\n", i > info locals > set i = 10 > continue > end dgawk> `continue' [COUNT] `c' [COUNT] Resume program execution. If continued from a breakpoint and COUNT is specified, ignores the breakpoint at that location the next COUNT times before stopping. `finish' Execute until the selected stack frame returns. Print the returned value. `next' [COUNT] `n' [COUNT] Continue execution to the next source line, stepping over function calls. The argument COUNT controls how many times to repeat the action, as in `step'. `nexti' [COUNT] `ni' [COUNT] Execute one (or COUNT) instruction(s), stepping over function calls. `return' [VALUE] Cancel execution of a function call. If VALUE (either a string or a number) is specified, it is used as the function's return value. If used in a frame other than the innermost one (the currently executing function, i.e., frame number 0), discard all inner frames in addition to the selected one, and the caller of that frame becomes the innermost frame. `run' `r' Start/restart execution of the program. When restarting, `dgawk' retains the current breakpoints, watchpoints, command history, automatic display variables, and debugger options. `step' [COUNT] `s' [COUNT] Continue execution until control reaches a different source line in the current stack frame. `step' steps inside any function called within the line. If the argument COUNT is supplied, steps that many times before stopping, unless it encounters a breakpoint or watchpoint. `stepi' [COUNT] `si' [COUNT] Execute one (or COUNT) instruction(s), stepping inside function calls. (For illustration of what is meant by an "instruction" in `gawk', see the output shown under `dump' in *note Miscellaneous Dgawk Commands::.) `until' [[FILENAME`:']N | FUNCTION] `u' [[FILENAME`:']N | FUNCTION] Without any argument, continue execution until a line past the current line in current stack frame is reached. With an argument, continue execution until the specified location is reached, or the current stack frame returns. File: gawk.info, Node: Viewing And Changing Data, Next: Dgawk Stack, Prev: Dgawk Execution Control, Up: List of Debugger Commands 14.3.3 Viewing and Changing Data -------------------------------- The commands for viewing and changing variables inside of `gawk' are: `display' [VAR | `$'N] Add variable VAR (or field `$N') to the display list. The value of the variable or field is displayed each time the program stops. Each variable added to the list is identified by a unique number: dgawk> display x -| 10: x = 1 displays the assigned item number, the variable name and its current value. If the display variable refers to a function parameter, it is silently deleted from the list as soon as the execution reaches a context where no such variable of the given name exists. Without argument, `display' displays the current values of items on the list. `eval "AWK STATEMENTS"' Evaluate AWK STATEMENTS in the context of the running program. You can do anything that an `awk' program would do: assign values to variables, call functions, and so on. `eval' PARAM, ... AWK STATEMENTS `end' This form of `eval' is similar, but it allows you to define "local variables" that exist in the context of the AWK STATEMENTS, instead of using variables or function parameters defined by the program. `print' VAR1[`,' VAR2 ...] `p' VAR1[`,' VAR2 ...] Print the value of a `gawk' variable or field. Fields must be referenced by constants: dgawk> print $3 This prints the third field in the input record (if the specified field does not exist, it prints `Null field'). A variable can be an array element, with the subscripts being constant values. To print the contents of an array, prefix the name of the array with the `@' symbol: gawk> print @a This prints the indices and the corresponding values for all elements in the array `a'. `printf' FORMAT [`,' ARG ...] Print formatted text. The FORMAT may include escape sequences, such as `\n' (*note Escape Sequences::). No newline is printed unless one is specified. `set' VAR`='VALUE Assign a constant (number or string) value to an `awk' variable or field. String values must be enclosed between double quotes (`"..."'). You can also set special `awk' variables, such as `FS', `NF', `NR', etc. `watch' VAR | `$'N [`"EXPRESSION"'] `w' VAR | `$'N [`"EXPRESSION"'] Add variable VAR (or field `$N') to the watch list. `dgawk' then stops whenever the value of the variable or field changes. Each watched item is assigned a number which can be used to delete it from the watch list using the `unwatch' command. With a watchpoint, you may also supply a condition. This is an `awk' expression (enclosed in double quotes) that `dgawk' evaluates whenever the watchpoint is reached. If the condition is true, then `dgawk' stops execution and prompts for a command. Otherwise, `dgawk' continues executing the program. `undisplay' [N] Remove item number N (or all items, if no argument) from the automatic display list. `unwatch' [N] Remove item number N (or all items, if no argument) from the watch list. File: gawk.info, Node: Dgawk Stack, Next: Dgawk Info, Prev: Viewing And Changing Data, Up: List of Debugger Commands 14.3.4 Dealing With The Stack ----------------------------- Whenever you run a program which contains any function calls, `gawk' maintains a stack of all of the function calls leading up to where the program is right now. You can see how you got to where you are, and also move around in the stack to see what the state of things was in the functions which called the one you are in. The commands for doing this are: `backtrace' [COUNT] `bt' [COUNT] Print a backtrace of all function calls (stack frames), or innermost COUNT frames if COUNT > 0. Print the outermost COUNT frames if COUNT < 0. The backtrace displays the name and arguments to each function, the source file name, and the line number. `down' [COUNT] Move COUNT (default 1) frames down the stack toward the innermost frame. Then select and print the frame. `frame' [N] `f' [N] Select and print (frame number, function and argument names, source file, and the source line) stack frame N. Frame 0 is the currently executing, or "innermost", frame (function call), frame 1 is the frame that called the innermost one. The highest numbered frame is the one for the main program. `up' [COUNT] Move COUNT (default 1) frames up the stack toward the outermost frame. Then select and print the frame. File: gawk.info, Node: Dgawk Info, Next: Miscellaneous Dgawk Commands, Prev: Dgawk Stack, Up: List of Debugger Commands 14.3.5 Obtaining Information About The Program and The Debugger State --------------------------------------------------------------------- Besides looking at the values of variables, there is often a need to get other sorts of information about the state of your program and of the debugging environment itself. `dgawk' has one command which provides this information, appropriately called `info'. `info' is used with one of a number of arguments that tell it exactly what you want to know: `info' WHAT `i' WHAT The value for WHAT should be one of the following: `args' Arguments of the selected frame. `break' List all currently set breakpoints. `display' List all items in the automatic display list. `frame' Description of the selected stack frame. `functions' List all function definitions including source file names and line numbers. `locals' Local variables of the selected frame. `source' The name of the current source file. Each time the program stops, the current source file is the file containing the current instruction. When `dgawk' first starts, the current source file is the first file included via the `-f' option. The `list FILENAME:LINENO' command can be used at any time to change the current source. `sources' List all program sources. `variables' List all global variables. `watch' List all items in the watch list. Additional commands give you control over the debugger, the ability to save the debugger's state, and the ability to run debugger commands from a file. The commands are: `option' [NAME[`='VALUE]] `o' [NAME[`='VALUE]] Without an argument, display the available debugger options and their current values. `option NAME' shows the current value of the named option. `option NAME=VALUE' assigns a new value to the named option. The available options are: `history_size' The maximum number of lines to keep in the history file `./.dgawk_history'. The default is 100. `listsize' The number of lines that `list' prints. The default is 15. `outfile' Send `gawk' output to a file; debugger output still goes to standard output. An empty string (`""') resets output to standard output. `prompt' The debugger prompt. The default is `dgawk> '. `save_history [on | off]' Save command history to file `./.dgawk_history'. The default is `on'. `save_options [on | off]' Save current options to file `./.dgawkrc' upon exit. The default is `on'. Options are read back in to the next session upon startup. `trace [on | off]' Turn instruction tracing on or off. The default is `off'. `save' FILENAME Save the commands from the current session to the given file name, so that they can be replayed using the `source' command. `source' FILENAME Run command(s) from a file; an error in any command does not terminate execution of subsequent commands. Comments (lines starting with `#') are allowed in a command file. Empty lines are ignored; they do _not_ repeat the last command. You can't restart the program by having more than one `run' command in the file. Also, the list of commands may include additional `source' commands; however, `dgawk' will not source the same file more than once in order to avoid infinite recursion. In addition to, or instead of the `source' command, you can use the `-R FILE' or `--command=FILE' command-line options to execute commands from a file non-interactively (*note Options::. File: gawk.info, Node: Miscellaneous Dgawk Commands, Prev: Dgawk Info, Up: List of Debugger Commands 14.3.6 Miscellaneous Commands ----------------------------- There are a few more commands which do not fit into the previous categories, as follows: `dump' [FILENAME] Dump bytecode of the program to standard output or to the file named in FILENAME. This prints a representation of the internal instructions which `gawk' executes to implement the `awk' commands in a program. This can be very enlightening, as the following partial dump of Davide Brini's obfuscated code (*note Signature Program::) demonstrates: dgawk> dump -| # BEGIN -| -| [ 2:0x89faef4] Op_rule : [in_rule = BEGIN] [source_file = brini.awk] -| [ 3:0x89fa428] Op_push_i : "~" [PERM|STRING|STRCUR] -| [ 3:0x89fa464] Op_push_i : "~" [PERM|STRING|STRCUR] -| [ 3:0x89fa450] Op_match : -| [ 3:0x89fa3ec] Op_store_var : O [do_reference = FALSE] -| [ 4:0x89fa48c] Op_push_i : "==" [PERM|STRING|STRCUR] -| [ 4:0x89fa4c8] Op_push_i : "==" [PERM|STRING|STRCUR] -| [ 4:0x89fa4b4] Op_equal : -| [ 4:0x89fa400] Op_store_var : o [do_reference = FALSE] -| [ 5:0x89fa4f0] Op_push : o -| [ 5:0x89fa4dc] Op_plus_i : 0 [PERM|NUMCUR|NUMBER] -| [ 5:0x89fa414] Op_push_lhs : o [do_reference = TRUE] -| [ 5:0x89fa4a0] Op_assign_plus : -| [ :0x89fa478] Op_pop : -| [ 6:0x89fa540] Op_push : O -| [ 6:0x89fa554] Op_push_i : "" [PERM|STRING|STRCUR] -| [ :0x89fa5a4] Op_no_op : -| [ 6:0x89fa590] Op_push : O -| [ :0x89fa5b8] Op_concat : [expr_count = 3] [concat_flag = 0] -| [ 6:0x89fa518] Op_store_var : x [do_reference = FALSE] -| [ 7:0x89fa504] Op_push_loop : [target_continue = 0x89fa568] [target_break = 0x89fa680] -| [ 7:0x89fa568] Op_push_lhs : X [do_reference = TRUE] -| [ 7:0x89fa52c] Op_postincrement : -| [ 7:0x89fa5e0] Op_push : x -| [ 7:0x89fa61c] Op_push : o -| [ 7:0x89fa5f4] Op_plus : -| [ 7:0x89fa644] Op_push : o -| [ 7:0x89fa630] Op_plus : -| [ 7:0x89fa5cc] Op_leq : -| [ :0x89fa57c] Op_jmp_false : [target_jmp = 0x89fa680] -| [ 7:0x89fa694] Op_push_i : "%c" [PERM|STRING|STRCUR] -| [ :0x89fa6d0] Op_no_op : -| [ 7:0x89fa608] Op_assign_concat : c -| [ :0x89fa6a8] Op_jmp : [target_jmp = 0x89fa568] -| [ :0x89fa680] Op_pop_loop : -| ... -| -| [ 8:0x89fa658] Op_K_printf : [expr_count = 17] [redir_type = ""] -| [ :0x89fa374] Op_no_op : -| [ :0x89fa3d8] Op_atexit : -| [ :0x89fa6bc] Op_stop : -| [ :0x89fa39c] Op_no_op : -| [ :0x89fa3b0] Op_after_beginfile : -| [ :0x89fa388] Op_no_op : -| [ :0x89fa3c4] Op_after_endfile : dgawk> `help' `h' Print a list of all of the `dgawk' commands with a short summary of their usage. `help COMMAND' prints the information about the command COMMAND. `list' [`-' | `+' | N | FILENAME`:'N | N-M | FUNCTION] `l' [`-' | `+' | N | FILENAME`:'N | N-M | FUNCTION] Print the specified lines (default 15) from the current source file or the file named FILENAME. The possible arguments to `list' are as follows: `-' Print lines before the lines last printed. `+' Print lines after the lines last printed. `list' without any argument does the same thing. N Print lines centered around line number N. N-M Print lines from N to M. FILENAME`:'N Print lines centered around line number N in source file FILENAME. This command may change the current source file. FUNCTION Print lines centered around beginning of the function FUNCTION. This command may change the current source file. `quit' `q' Exit the debugger. Debugging is great fun, but sometimes we all have to tend to other obligations in life, and sometimes we find the bug, and are free to go on to the next one! As we saw above, if you are running a program, `dgawk' warns you if you accidentally type `q' or `quit', to make sure you really want to quit. `trace' `on' | `off' Turn on or off a continuous printing of instructions which are about to be executed, along with printing the `awk' line which they implement. The default is `off'. It is to be hoped that most of the "opcodes" in these instructions are fairly self-explanatory, and using `stepi' and `nexti' while `trace' is on will make them into familiar friends. File: gawk.info, Node: Readline Support, Next: Dgawk Limitations, Prev: List of Debugger Commands, Up: Debugger 14.4 Readline Support ===================== If `dgawk' is compiled with the `readline' library, you can take advantage of that library's command completion and history expansion features. The following types of completion are available: Command completion Command names. Source file name completion Source file names. Relevant commands are `break', `clear', `list', `tbreak', and `until'. Argument completion Non-numeric arguments to a command. Relevant commands are `enable' and `info'. Variable name completion Global variable names, and function arguments in the current context if the program is running. Relevant commands are `display', `print', `set', and `watch'. File: gawk.info, Node: Dgawk Limitations, Prev: Readline Support, Up: Debugger 14.5 Limitations and Future Plans ================================= We hope you find `dgawk' useful and enjoyable to work with, but as with any program, especially in its early releases, it still has some limitations. A few which are worth being aware of are: * At this point, `dgawk' does not give a detailed explanation of what you did wrong when you type in something it doesn't like. Rather, it just responds `syntax error'. When you do figure out what your mistake was, though, you'll feel like a real guru. * If you perused the dump of opcodes in *note Miscellaneous Dgawk Commands::, (or if you are already familiar with `gawk' internals), you will realize that much of the internal manipulation of data in `gawk', as in many interpreters, is done on a stack. `Op_push', `Op_pop', etc., are the "bread and butter" of most `gawk' code. Unfortunately, as of now, `dgawk' does not allow you to examine the stack's contents. That is, the intermediate results of expression evaluation are on the stack, but cannot be printed. Rather, only variables which are defined in the program can be printed. Of course, a workaround for this is to use more explicit variables at the debugging stage and then change back to obscure, perhaps more optimal code later. * There is no way to look "inside" the process of compiling regular expressions to see if you got it right. As an `awk' programmer, you are expected to know what `/[^[:alnum:][:blank:]]/' means. * `dgawk' is designed to be used by running a program (with all its parameters) on the command line, as described in *note dgawk invocation::. There is no way (as of now) to attach or "break in" to a running program. This seems reasonable for a language which is used mainly for quickly executing, short programs. * `dgawk' only accepts source supplied with the `-f' option. Look forward to a future release when these and other missing features may be added, and of course feel free to try to add them yourself! File: gawk.info, Node: Language History, Next: Installation, Prev: Debugger, Up: Top Appendix A The Evolution of the `awk' Language ********************************************** This Info file describes the GNU implementation of `awk', which follows the POSIX specification. Many long-time `awk' users learned `awk' programming with the original `awk' implementation in Version 7 Unix. (This implementation was the basis for `awk' in Berkeley Unix, through 4.3-Reno. Subsequent versions of Berkeley Unix, and some systems derived from 4.4BSD-Lite, use various versions of `gawk' for their `awk'.) This major node briefly describes the evolution of the `awk' language, with cross-references to other parts of the Info file where you can find more information. * Menu: * V7/SVR3.1:: The major changes between V7 and System V Release 3.1. * SVR4:: Minor changes between System V Releases 3.1 and 4. * POSIX:: New features from the POSIX standard. * BTL:: New features from Brian Kernighan's version of `awk'. * POSIX/GNU:: The extensions in `gawk' not in POSIX `awk'. * Common Extensions:: Common Extensions Summary. * Contributors:: The major contributors to `gawk'. File: gawk.info, Node: V7/SVR3.1, Next: SVR4, Up: Language History A.1 Major Changes Between V7 and SVR3.1 ======================================= The `awk' language evolved considerably between the release of Version 7 Unix (1978) and the new version that was first made generally available in System V Release 3.1 (1987). This minor node summarizes the changes, with cross-references to further details: * The requirement for `;' to separate rules on a line (*note Statements/Lines::). * User-defined functions and the `return' statement (*note User-defined::). * The `delete' statement (*note Delete::). * The `do'-`while' statement (*note Do Statement::). * The built-in functions `atan2()', `cos()', `sin()', `rand()', and `srand()' (*note Numeric Functions::). * The built-in functions `gsub()', `sub()', and `match()' (*note String Functions::). * The built-in functions `close()' and `system()' (*note I/O Functions::). * The `ARGC', `ARGV', `FNR', `RLENGTH', `RSTART', and `SUBSEP' built-in variables (*note Built-in Variables::). * Assignable `$0' (*note Changing Fields::). * The conditional expression using the ternary operator `?:' (*note Conditional Exp::). * The expression `INDEX-VARIABLE in ARRAY' outside of `for' statements (*note Reference to Elements::). * The exponentiation operator `^' (*note Arithmetic Ops::) and its assignment operator form `^=' (*note Assignment Ops::). * C-compatible operator precedence, which breaks some old `awk' programs (*note Precedence::). * Regexps as the value of `FS' (*note Field Separators::) and as the third argument to the `split()' function (*note String Functions::), rather than using only the first character of `FS'. * Dynamic regexps as operands of the `~' and `!~' operators (*note Regexp Usage::). * The escape sequences `\b', `\f', and `\r' (*note Escape Sequences::). (Some vendors have updated their old versions of `awk' to recognize `\b', `\f', and `\r', but this is not something you can rely on.) * Redirection of input for the `getline' function (*note Getline::). * Multiple `BEGIN' and `END' rules (*note BEGIN/END::). * Multidimensional arrays (*note Multi-dimensional::). File: gawk.info, Node: SVR4, Next: POSIX, Prev: V7/SVR3.1, Up: Language History A.2 Changes Between SVR3.1 and SVR4 =================================== The System V Release 4 (1989) version of Unix `awk' added these features (some of which originated in `gawk'): * The `ENVIRON' array (*note Built-in Variables::). * Multiple `-f' options on the command line (*note Options::). * The `-v' option for assigning variables before program execution begins (*note Options::). * The `--' option for terminating command-line options. * The `\a', `\v', and `\x' escape sequences (*note Escape Sequences::). * A defined return value for the `srand()' built-in function (*note Numeric Functions::). * The `toupper()' and `tolower()' built-in string functions for case translation (*note String Functions::). * A cleaner specification for the `%c' format-control letter in the `printf' function (*note Control Letters::). * The ability to dynamically pass the field width and precision (`"%*.*d"') in the argument list of the `printf' function (*note Control Letters::). * The use of regexp constants, such as `/foo/', as expressions, where they are equivalent to using the matching operator, as in `$0 ~ /foo/' (*note Using Constant Regexps::). * Processing of escape sequences inside command-line variable assignments (*note Assignment Options::). File: gawk.info, Node: POSIX, Next: BTL, Prev: SVR4, Up: Language History A.3 Changes Between SVR4 and POSIX `awk' ======================================== The POSIX Command Language and Utilities standard for `awk' (1992) introduced the following changes into the language: * The use of `-W' for implementation-specific options (*note Options::). * The use of `CONVFMT' for controlling the conversion of numbers to strings (*note Conversion::). * The concept of a numeric string and tighter comparison rules to go with it (*note Typing and Comparison::). * The use of built-in variables as function parameter names is forbidden (*note Definition Syntax::. * More complete documentation of many of the previously undocumented features of the language. *Note Common Extensions::, for a list of common extensions not permitted by the POSIX standard. The 2008 POSIX standard can be found online at `http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/'. File: gawk.info, Node: BTL, Next: POSIX/GNU, Prev: POSIX, Up: Language History A.4 Extensions in Brian Kernighan's `awk' ========================================= Brian Kernighan has made his version available via his home page (*note Other Versions::). This minor node describes common extensions that originally appeared in his version of `awk'. * The `**' and `**=' operators (*note Arithmetic Ops:: and *note Assignment Ops::). * The use of `func' as an abbreviation for `function' (*note Definition Syntax::). * The `fflush()' built-in function for flushing buffered output (*note I/O Functions::). *Note Common Extensions::, for a full list of the extensions available in his `awk'. File: gawk.info, Node: POSIX/GNU, Next: Common Extensions, Prev: BTL, Up: Language History A.5 Extensions in `gawk' Not in POSIX `awk' =========================================== The GNU implementation, `gawk', adds a large number of features. They can all be disabled with either the `--traditional' or `--posix' options (*note Options::). A number of features have come and gone over the years. This minor node summarizes the additional features over POSIX `awk' that are in the current version of `gawk'. * Additional built-in variables: - The `ARGIND' `BINMODE', `ERRNO', `FIELDWIDTHS', `FPAT', `IGNORECASE', `LINT', `PROCINFO', `RT', and `TEXTDOMAIN' variables (*note Built-in Variables::). * Special files in I/O redirections: - The `/dev/stdin', `/dev/stdout', `/dev/stderr' and `/dev/fd/N' special file names (*note Special Files::). - The `/inet', `/inet4', and `/inet6' special files for TCP/IP networking using `|&' to specify which version of the IP protocol to use. (*note TCP/IP Networking::). * Changes and/or additions to the language: - The `\x' escape sequence (*note Escape Sequences::). - Full support for both POSIX and GNU regexps (*note Regexp::). - The ability for `FS' and for the third argument to `split()' to be null strings (*note Single Character Fields::). - The ability for `RS' to be a regexp (*note Records::). - The ability to use octal and hexadecimal constants in `awk' program source code (*note Nondecimal-numbers::). - The `|&' operator for two-way I/O to a coprocess (*note Two-way I/O::). - Indirect function calls (*note Indirect Calls::). - Directories on the command line produce a warning and are skipped (*note Command line directories::). * New keywords: - The `BEGINFILE' and `ENDFILE' special patterns. (*note BEGINFILE/ENDFILE::). - The ability to delete all of an array at once with `delete ARRAY' (*note Delete::). - The `nextfile' statement (*note Nextfile Statement::). - The `switch' statement (*note Switch Statement::). * Changes to standard `awk' functions: - The optional second argument to `close()' that allows closing one end of a two-way pipe to a coprocess (*note Two-way I/O::). - POSIX compliance for `gsub()' and `sub()'. - The `length()' function accepts an array argument and returns the number of elements in the array (*note String Functions::). - The optional third argument to the `match()' function for capturing text-matching subexpressions within a regexp (*note String Functions::). - Positional specifiers in `printf' formats for making translations easier (*note Printf Ordering::). - The `split()' function's additional optional fourth argument which is an array to hold the text of the field separators. (*note String Functions::). * Additional functions only in `gawk': - The `and()', `compl()', `lshift()', `or()', `rshift()', and `xor()' functions for bit manipulation (*note Bitwise Functions::). - The `asort()' and `asorti()' functions for sorting arrays (*note Array Sorting::). - The `bindtextdomain()', `dcgettext()' and `dcngettext()' functions for internationalization (*note Programmer i18n::). - The `extension()' built-in function and the ability to add new functions dynamically (*note Dynamic Extensions::). - The `fflush()' function from Brian Kernighan's version of `awk' (*note I/O Functions::). - The `gensub()', `patsplit()', and `strtonum()' functions for more powerful text manipulation (*note String Functions::). - The `mktime()', `systime()', and `strftime()' functions for working with timestamps (*note Time Functions::). * Changes and/or additions in the command-line options: - The `AWKPATH' environment variable for specifying a path search for the `-f' command-line option (*note Options::). - The ability to use GNU-style long-named options that start with `--' and the `--characters-as-bytes', `--compat', `--dump-variables', `--exec', `--gen-pot', `--lint', `--lint-old', `--non-decimal-data', `--posix', `--profile', `--re-interval', `--sandbox', `--source', `--traditional', and `--use-lc-numeric' options (*note Options::). * Support for the following obsolete systems was removed from the code and the documentation for `gawk' version 4.0: - Amiga - Atari - BeOS - Cray - MIPS RiscOS - MS-DOS with the Microsoft Compiler - MS-Windows with the Microsoft Compiler - NeXT - SunOS 3.x, Sun 386 (Road Runner) - Tandem (non-POSIX) - Prestandard VAX C compiler for VAX/VMS File: gawk.info, Node: Common Extensions, Next: Contributors, Prev: POSIX/GNU, Up: Language History A.6 Common Extensions Summary ============================= This minor node summarizes the common extensions supported by `gawk', Brian Kernighan's `awk', and `mawk', the three most widely-used freely available versions of `awk' (*note Other Versions::). Feature BWK Awk Mawk GNU Awk -------------------------------------------------------- `\x' Escape sequence X X X `RS' as regexp X X `FS' as null string X X X `/dev/stdin' special file X X `/dev/stdout' special file X X X `/dev/stderr' special file X X X `**' and `**=' operators X X `func' keyword X X `nextfile' statement X X X `delete' without subscript X X X `length()' of an array X X `fflush()' function X X X `BINMODE' variable X X File: gawk.info, Node: Contributors, Prev: Common Extensions, Up: Language History A.7 Major Contributors to `gawk' ================================ Always give credit where credit is due. Anonymous This minor node names the major contributors to `gawk' and/or this Info file, in approximate chronological order: * Dr. Alfred V. Aho, Dr. Peter J. Weinberger, and Dr. Brian W. Kernighan, all of Bell Laboratories, designed and implemented Unix `awk', from which `gawk' gets the majority of its feature set. * Paul Rubin did the initial design and implementation in 1986, and wrote the first draft (around 40 pages) of this Info file. * Jay Fenlason finished the initial implementation. * Diane Close revised the first draft of this Info file, bringing it to around 90 pages. * Richard Stallman helped finish the implementation and the initial draft of this Info file. He is also the founder of the FSF and the GNU project. * John Woods contributed parts of the code (mostly fixes) in the initial version of `gawk'. * In 1988, David Trueman took over primary maintenance of `gawk', making it compatible with "new" `awk', and greatly improving its performance. * Conrad Kwok, Scott Garfinkle, and Kent Williams did the initial ports to MS-DOS with various versions of MSC. * Pat Rankin provided the VMS port and its documentation. * Hal Peterson provided help in porting `gawk' to Cray systems. (This is no longer supported.) * Kai Uwe Rommel provided the initial port to OS/2 and its documentation. * Michal Jaegermann provided the port to Atari systems and its documentation. (This port is no longer supported.) He continues to provide portability checking with DEC Alpha systems, and has done a lot of work to make sure `gawk' works on non-32-bit systems. * Fred Fish provided the port to Amiga systems and its documentation. (With Fred's sad passing, this is no longer supported.) * Scott Deifik currently maintains the MS-DOS port. * Juan Grigera provided a port to Windows32 systems. (This is no longer supported.) * For many years, Dr. Darrel Hankerson acted as coordinator for the various ports to different PC platforms and created binary distributions for various PC operating systems. He was also instrumental in keeping the documentation up to date for the various PC platforms. * Christos Zoulas provided the `extension()' built-in function for dynamically adding new modules. * Ju"rgen Kahrs contributed the initial version of the TCP/IP networking code and documentation, and motivated the inclusion of the `|&' operator. * Stephen Davies provided the initial port to Tandem systems and its documentation. (However, this is no longer supported.) He was also instrumental in the initial work to integrate the byte-code internals into the `gawk' code base. * Matthew Woehlke provided improvements for Tandem's POSIX-compliant systems. * Martin Brown provided the port to BeOS and its documentation. (This is no longer supported.) * Arno Peters did the initial work to convert `gawk' to use GNU Automake and GNU `gettext'. * Alan J. Broder provided the initial version of the `asort()' function as well as the code for the optional third argument to the `match()' function. * Andreas Buening updated the `gawk' port for OS/2. * Isamu Hasegawa, of IBM in Japan, contributed support for multibyte characters. * Michael Benzinger contributed the initial code for `switch' statements. * Patrick T.J. McPhee contributed the code for dynamic loading in Windows32 environments. (This is no longer supported) * John Haque reworked the `gawk' internals to use a byte-code engine, providing the `dgawk' debugger for `awk' programs. * Efraim Yawitz contributed the original text for *note Debugger::. * Arnold Robbins has been working on `gawk' since 1988, at first helping David Trueman, and as the primary maintainer since around 1994. File: gawk.info, Node: Installation, Next: Notes, Prev: Language History, Up: Top Appendix B Installing `gawk' **************************** This appendix provides instructions for installing `gawk' on the various platforms that are supported by the developers. The primary developer supports GNU/Linux (and Unix), whereas the other ports are contributed. *Note Bugs::, for the electronic mail addresses of the people who did the respective ports. * Menu: * Gawk Distribution:: What is in the `gawk' distribution. * Unix Installation:: Installing `gawk' under various versions of Unix. * Non-Unix Installation:: Installation on Other Operating Systems. * Bugs:: Reporting Problems and Bugs. * Other Versions:: Other freely available `awk' implementations. File: gawk.info, Node: Gawk Distribution, Next: Unix Installation, Up: Installation B.1 The `gawk' Distribution =========================== This minor node describes how to get the `gawk' distribution, how to extract it, and then what is in the various files and subdirectories. * Menu: * Getting:: How to get the distribution. * Extracting:: How to extract the distribution. * Distribution contents:: What is in the distribution. File: gawk.info, Node: Getting, Next: Extracting, Up: Gawk Distribution B.1.1 Getting the `gawk' Distribution ------------------------------------- There are three ways to get GNU software: * Copy it from someone else who already has it. * Retrieve `gawk' from the Internet host `ftp.gnu.org', in the directory `/gnu/gawk'. Both anonymous `ftp' and `http' access are supported. If you have the `wget' program, you can use a command like the following: wget http://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/gawk/gawk-4.0.0.tar.gz The GNU software archive is mirrored around the world. The up-to-date list of mirror sites is available from the main FSF web site (http://www.gnu.org/order/ftp.html). Try to use one of the mirrors; they will be less busy, and you can usually find one closer to your site. File: gawk.info, Node: Extracting, Next: Distribution contents, Prev: Getting, Up: Gawk Distribution B.1.2 Extracting the Distribution --------------------------------- `gawk' is distributed as several `tar' files compressed with different compression programs: `gzip', `bzip2', and `xz'. For simplicity, the rest of these instructions assume you are using the one compressed with the GNU Zip program, `gzip'. Once you have the distribution (for example, `gawk-4.0.0.tar.gz'), use `gzip' to expand the file and then use `tar' to extract it. You can use the following pipeline to produce the `gawk' distribution: # Under System V, add 'o' to the tar options gzip -d -c gawk-4.0.0.tar.gz | tar -xvpf - On a system with GNU `tar', you can let `tar' do the decompression for you: tar -xvpzf gawk-4.0.0.tar.gz Extracting the archive creates a directory named `gawk-4.0.0' in the current directory. The distribution file name is of the form `gawk-V.R.P.tar.gz'. The V represents the major version of `gawk', the R represents the current release of version V, and the P represents a "patch level", meaning that minor bugs have been fixed in the release. The current patch level is 0, but when retrieving distributions, you should get the version with the highest version, release, and patch level. (Note, however, that patch levels greater than or equal to 70 denote "beta" or nonproduction software; you might not want to retrieve such a version unless you don't mind experimenting.) If you are not on a Unix or GNU/Linux system, you need to make other arrangements for getting and extracting the `gawk' distribution. You should consult a local expert. File: gawk.info, Node: Distribution contents, Prev: Extracting, Up: Gawk Distribution B.1.3 Contents of the `gawk' Distribution ----------------------------------------- The `gawk' distribution has a number of C source files, documentation files, subdirectories, and files related to the configuration process (*note Unix Installation::), as well as several subdirectories related to different non-Unix operating systems: Various `.c', `.y', and `.h' files The actual `gawk' source code. `README' `README_d/README.*' Descriptive files: `README' for `gawk' under Unix and the rest for the various hardware and software combinations. `INSTALL' A file providing an overview of the configuration and installation process. `ChangeLog' A detailed list of source code changes as bugs are fixed or improvements made. `ChangeLog.0' An older list of source code changes. `NEWS' A list of changes to `gawk' since the last release or patch. `NEWS.0' An older list of changes to `gawk'. `COPYING' The GNU General Public License. `FUTURES' A brief list of features and changes being contemplated for future releases, with some indication of the time frame for the feature, based on its difficulty. `LIMITATIONS' A list of those factors that limit `gawk''s performance. Most of these depend on the hardware or operating system software and are not limits in `gawk' itself. `POSIX.STD' A description of behaviors in the POSIX standard for `awk' which are left undefined, or where `gawk' may not comply fully, as well as a list of things that the POSIX standard should describe but does not. `doc/awkforai.txt' A short article describing why `gawk' is a good language for Artificial Intelligence (AI) programming. `doc/bc_notes' A brief description of `gawk''s "byte code" internals. `doc/README.card' `doc/ad.block' `doc/awkcard.in' `doc/cardfonts' `doc/colors' `doc/macros' `doc/no.colors' `doc/setter.outline' The `troff' source for a five-color `awk' reference card. A modern version of `troff' such as GNU `troff' (`groff') is needed to produce the color version. See the file `README.card' for instructions if you have an older `troff'. `doc/gawk.1' The `troff' source for a manual page describing `gawk'. This is distributed for the convenience of Unix users. `doc/gawk.texi' The Texinfo source file for this Info file. It should be processed with TeX (via `texi2dvi' or `texi2pdf') to produce a printed document, and with `makeinfo' to produce an Info or HTML file. `doc/gawk.info' The generated Info file for this Info file. `doc/gawkinet.texi' The Texinfo source file for *note (General Introduction)Top:: gawkinet, TCP/IP Internetworking with `gawk'. It should be processed with TeX (via `texi2dvi' or `texi2pdf') to produce a printed document and with `makeinfo' to produce an Info or HTML file. `doc/gawkinet.info' The generated Info file for `TCP/IP Internetworking with `gawk''. `doc/igawk.1' The `troff' source for a manual page describing the `igawk' program presented in *note Igawk Program::. `doc/Makefile.in' The input file used during the configuration process to generate the actual `Makefile' for creating the documentation. `Makefile.am' `*/Makefile.am' Files used by the GNU `automake' software for generating the `Makefile.in' files used by `autoconf' and `configure'. `Makefile.in' `aclocal.m4' `configh.in' `configure.ac' `configure' `custom.h' `missing_d/*' `m4/*' These files and subdirectories are used when configuring `gawk' for various Unix systems. They are explained in *note Unix Installation::. `po/*' The `po' library contains message translations. `awklib/extract.awk' `awklib/Makefile.am' `awklib/Makefile.in' `awklib/eg/*' The `awklib' directory contains a copy of `extract.awk' (*note Extract Program::), which can be used to extract the sample programs from the Texinfo source file for this Info file. It also contains a `Makefile.in' file, which `configure' uses to generate a `Makefile'. `Makefile.am' is used by GNU Automake to create `Makefile.in'. The library functions from *note Library Functions::, and the `igawk' program from *note Igawk Program::, are included as ready-to-use files in the `gawk' distribution. They are installed as part of the installation process. The rest of the programs in this Info file are available in appropriate subdirectories of `awklib/eg'. `posix/*' Files needed for building `gawk' on POSIX-compliant systems. `pc/*' Files needed for building `gawk' under MS-Windows and OS/2 (*note PC Installation::, for details). `vms/*' Files needed for building `gawk' under VMS (*note VMS Installation::, for details). `test/*' A test suite for `gawk'. You can use `make check' from the top-level `gawk' directory to run your version of `gawk' against the test suite. If `gawk' successfully passes `make check', then you can be confident of a successful port. File: gawk.info, Node: Unix Installation, Next: Non-Unix Installation, Prev: Gawk Distribution, Up: Installation B.2 Compiling and Installing `gawk' on Unix-like Systems ======================================================== Usually, you can compile and install `gawk' by typing only two commands. However, if you use an unusual system, you may need to configure `gawk' for your system yourself. * Menu: * Quick Installation:: Compiling `gawk' under Unix. * Additional Configuration Options:: Other compile-time options. * Configuration Philosophy:: How it's all supposed to work. File: gawk.info, Node: Quick Installation, Next: Additional Configuration Options, Up: Unix Installation B.2.1 Compiling `gawk' for Unix-like Systems -------------------------------------------- The normal installation steps should work on all modern commercial Unix-derived systems, GNU/Linux, BSD-based systems, and the Cygwin environment for MS-Windows. After you have extracted the `gawk' distribution, `cd' to `gawk-4.0.0'. Like most GNU software, `gawk' is configured automatically for your system by running the `configure' program. This program is a Bourne shell script that is generated automatically using GNU `autoconf'. (The `autoconf' software is described fully starting with *note (Autoconf)Top:: autoconf,Autoconf--Generating Automatic Configuration Scripts.) To configure `gawk', simply run `configure': sh ./configure This produces a `Makefile' and `config.h' tailored to your system. The `config.h' file describes various facts about your system. You might want to edit the `Makefile' to change the `CFLAGS' variable, which controls the command-line options that are passed to the C compiler (such as optimization levels or compiling for debugging). Alternatively, you can add your own values for most `make' variables on the command line, such as `CC' and `CFLAGS', when running `configure': CC=cc CFLAGS=-g sh ./configure See the file `INSTALL' in the `gawk' distribution for all the details. After you have run `configure' and possibly edited the `Makefile', type: make Shortly thereafter, you should have an executable version of `gawk'. That's all there is to it! To verify that `gawk' is working properly, run `make check'. All of the tests should succeed. If these steps do not work, or if any of the tests fail, check the files in the `README_d' directory to see if you've found a known problem. If the failure is not described there, please send in a bug report (*note Bugs::). File: gawk.info, Node: Additional Configuration Options, Next: Configuration Philosophy, Prev: Quick Installation, Up: Unix Installation B.2.2 Additional Configuration Options -------------------------------------- There are several additional options you may use on the `configure' command line when compiling `gawk' from scratch, including: `--disable-lint' Disable all lint checking within `gawk'. The `--lint' and `--lint-old' options (*note Options::) are accepted, but silently do nothing. Similarly, setting the `LINT' variable (*note User-modified::) has no effect on the running `awk' program. When used with GCC's automatic dead-code-elimination, this option cuts almost 200K bytes off the size of the `gawk' executable on GNU/Linux x86 systems. Results on other systems and with other compilers are likely to vary. Using this option may bring you some slight performance improvement. Using this option will cause some of the tests in the test suite to fail. This option may be removed at a later date. `--disable-nls' Disable all message-translation facilities. This is usually not desirable, but it may bring you some slight performance improvement. `--with-whiny-user-strftime' Force use of the included version of the `strftime()' function for deficient systems. Use the command `./configure --help' to see the full list of options that `configure' supplies. File: gawk.info, Node: Configuration Philosophy, Prev: Additional Configuration Options, Up: Unix Installation B.2.3 The Configuration Process ------------------------------- This minor node is of interest only if you know something about using the C language and Unix-like operating systems. The source code for `gawk' generally attempts to adhere to formal standards wherever possible. This means that `gawk' uses library routines that are specified by the ISO C standard and by the POSIX operating system interface standard. The `gawk' source code requires using an ISO C compiler (the 1990 standard). Many Unix systems do not support all of either the ISO or the POSIX standards. The `missing_d' subdirectory in the `gawk' distribution contains replacement versions of those functions that are most likely to be missing. The `config.h' file that `configure' creates contains definitions that describe features of the particular operating system where you are attempting to compile `gawk'. The three things described by this file are: what header files are available, so that they can be correctly included, what (supposedly) standard functions are actually available in your C libraries, and various miscellaneous facts about your operating system. For example, there may not be an `st_blksize' element in the `stat' structure. In this case, `HAVE_ST_BLKSIZE' is undefined. It is possible for your C compiler to lie to `configure'. It may do so by not exiting with an error when a library function is not available. To get around this, edit the file `custom.h'. Use an `#ifdef' that is appropriate for your system, and either `#define' any constants that `configure' should have defined but didn't, or `#undef' any constants that `configure' defined and should not have. `custom.h' is automatically included by `config.h'. It is also possible that the `configure' program generated by `autoconf' will not work on your system in some other fashion. If you do have a problem, the file `configure.ac' is the input for `autoconf'. You may be able to change this file and generate a new version of `configure' that works on your system (*note Bugs::, for information on how to report problems in configuring `gawk'). The same mechanism may be used to send in updates to `configure.ac' and/or `custom.h'. File: gawk.info, Node: Non-Unix Installation, Next: Bugs, Prev: Unix Installation, Up: Installation B.3 Installation on Other Operating Systems =========================================== This minor node describes how to install `gawk' on various non-Unix systems. * Menu: * PC Installation:: Installing and Compiling `gawk' on MS-DOS and OS/2. * VMS Installation:: Installing `gawk' on VMS. File: gawk.info, Node: PC Installation, Next: VMS Installation, Up: Non-Unix Installation B.3.1 Installation on PC Operating Systems ------------------------------------------ This minor node covers installation and usage of `gawk' on x86 machines running MS-DOS, any version of MS-Windows, or OS/2. In this minor node, the term "Windows32" refers to any of Microsoft Windows-95/98/ME/NT/2000/XP/Vista/7. The limitations of MS-DOS (and MS-DOS shells under Windows32 or OS/2) has meant that various "DOS extenders" are often used with programs such as `gawk'. The varying capabilities of Microsoft Windows 3.1 and Windows32 can add to the confusion. For an overview of the considerations, please refer to `README_d/README.pc' in the distribution. * Menu: * PC Binary Installation:: Installing a prepared distribution. * PC Compiling:: Compiling `gawk' for MS-DOS, Windows32, and OS/2. * PC Testing:: Testing `gawk' on PC systems. * PC Using:: Running `gawk' on MS-DOS, Windows32 and OS/2. * Cygwin:: Building and running `gawk' for Cygwin. * MSYS:: Using `gawk' In The MSYS Environment. File: gawk.info, Node: PC Binary Installation, Next: PC Compiling, Up: PC Installation B.3.1.1 Installing a Prepared Distribution for PC Systems ......................................................... If you have received a binary distribution prepared by the MS-DOS maintainers, then `gawk' and the necessary support files appear under the `gnu' directory, with executables in `gnu/bin', libraries in `gnu/lib/awk', and manual pages under `gnu/man'. This is designed for easy installation to a `/gnu' directory on your drive--however, the files can be installed anywhere provided `AWKPATH' is set properly. Regardless of the installation directory, the first line of `igawk.cmd' and `igawk.bat' (in `gnu/bin') may need to be edited. The binary distribution contains a separate file describing the contents. In particular, it may include more than one version of the `gawk' executable. OS/2 (32 bit, EMX) binary distributions are prepared for the `/usr' directory of your preferred drive. Set `UNIXROOT' to your installation drive (e.g., `e:') if you want to install `gawk' onto another drive than the hardcoded default `c:'. Executables appear in `/usr/bin', libraries under `/usr/share/awk', manual pages under `/usr/man', Texinfo documentation under `/usr/info', and NLS files under `/usr/share/locale'. Note that the files can be installed anywhere provided `AWKPATH' is set properly. If you already have a file `/usr/info/dir' from another package _do not overwrite it!_ Instead enter the following commands at your prompt (replace `x:' by your installation drive): install-info --info-dir=x:/usr/info x:/usr/info/gawk.info install-info --info-dir=x:/usr/info x:/usr/info/gawkinet.info The binary distribution may contain a separate file containing additional or more detailed installation instructions. File: gawk.info, Node: PC Compiling, Next: PC Testing, Prev: PC Binary Installation, Up: PC Installation B.3.1.2 Compiling `gawk' for PC Operating Systems ................................................. `gawk' can be compiled for MS-DOS, Windows32, and OS/2 using the GNU development tools from DJ Delorie (DJGPP: MS-DOS only) or Eberhard Mattes (EMX: MS-DOS, Windows32 and OS/2). The file `README_d/README.pc' in the `gawk' distribution contains additional notes, and `pc/Makefile' contains important information on compilation options. To build `gawk' for MS-DOS and Windows32, copy the files in the `pc' directory (_except_ for `ChangeLog') to the directory with the rest of the `gawk' sources, then invoke `make' with the appropriate target name as an argument to build `gawk'. The `Makefile' copied from the `pc' directory contains a configuration section with comments and may need to be edited in order to work with your `make' utility. The `Makefile' supports a number of targets for building various MS-DOS and Windows32 versions. A list of targets is printed if the `make' command is given without a target. As an example, to build `gawk' using the DJGPP tools, enter `make djgpp'. (The DJGPP tools needed for the build may be found at `ftp://ftp.delorie.com/pub/djgpp/current/v2gnu/'.) To build a native MS-Windows binary of `gawk', type `make mingw32'. The 32 bit EMX version of `gawk' works "out of the box" under OS/2. However, it is highly recommended to use GCC 2.95.3 for the compilation. In principle, it is possible to compile `gawk' the following way: $ ./configure $ make This is not recommended, though. To get an OMF executable you should use the following commands at your `sh' prompt: $ CFLAGS="-O2 -Zomf -Zmt" $ export CFLAGS $ LDFLAGS="-s -Zcrtdll -Zlinker /exepack:2 -Zlinker /pm:vio -Zstack 0x6000" $ export LDFLAGS $ RANLIB="echo" $ export RANLIB $ ./configure --prefix=c:/usr $ make AR=emxomfar These are just suggestions for use with GCC 2.x. You may use any other set of (self-consistent) environment variables and compiler flags. If you use GCC 2.95 it is recommended to use also: $ LIBS="-lgcc" $ export LIBS You can also get an `a.out' executable if you prefer: $ CFLAGS="-O2 -Zmt" $ export CFLAGS $ LDFLAGS="-s -Zstack 0x6000" $ LIBS="-lgcc" $ unset RANLIB $ ./configure --prefix=c:/usr $ make NOTE: Compilation of `a.out' executables also works with GCC 3.2. Versions later than GCC 3.2 have not been tested successfully. `make install' works as expected with the EMX build. NOTE: Ancient OS/2 ports of GNU `make' are not able to handle the Makefiles of this package. If you encounter any problems with `make', try GNU Make 3.79.1 or later versions. You should find the latest version on `ftp://hobbes.nmsu.edu/pub/os2/'. File: gawk.info, Node: PC Testing, Next: PC Using, Prev: PC Compiling, Up: PC Installation B.3.1.3 Testing `gawk' on PC Operating Systems .............................................. Using `make' to run the standard tests and to install `gawk' requires additional Unix-like tools, including `sh', `sed', and `cp'. In order to run the tests, the `test/*.ok' files may need to be converted so that they have the usual MS-DOS-style end-of-line markers. Alternatively, run `make check CMP="diff -a"' to use GNU `diff' in text mode instead of `cmp' to compare the resulting files. Most of the tests work properly with Stewartson's shell along with the companion utilities or appropriate GNU utilities. However, some editing of `test/Makefile' is required. It is recommended that you copy the file `pc/Makefile.tst' over the file `test/Makefile' as a replacement. Details can be found in `README_d/README.pc' and in the file `pc/Makefile.tst'. On OS/2 the `pid' test fails because `spawnl()' is used instead of `fork()'/`execl()' to start child processes. Also the `mbfw1' and `mbprintf1' tests fail because the needed multibyte functionality is not available. File: gawk.info, Node: PC Using, Next: Cygwin, Prev: PC Testing, Up: PC Installation B.3.1.4 Using `gawk' on PC Operating Systems ............................................ With the exception of the Cygwin environment, the `|&' operator and TCP/IP networking (*note TCP/IP Networking::) are not supported for MS-DOS or MS-Windows. EMX (OS/2 only) does support at least the `|&' operator. The MS-DOS and MS-Windows versions of `gawk' search for program files as described in *note AWKPATH Variable::. However, semicolons (rather than colons) separate elements in the `AWKPATH' variable. If `AWKPATH' is not set or is empty, then the default search path for MS-Windows and MS-DOS versions is `".;c:/lib/awk;c:/gnu/lib/awk"'. The search path for OS/2 (32 bit, EMX) is determined by the prefix directory (most likely `/usr' or `c:/usr') that has been specified as an option of the `configure' script like it is the case for the Unix versions. If `c:/usr' is the prefix directory then the default search path contains `.' and `c:/usr/share/awk'. Additionally, to support binary distributions of `gawk' for OS/2 systems whose drive `c:' might not support long file names or might not exist at all, there is a special environment variable. If `UNIXROOT' specifies a drive then this specific drive is also searched for program files. E.g., if `UNIXROOT' is set to `e:' the complete default search path is `".;c:/usr/share/awk;e:/usr/share/awk"'. An `sh'-like shell (as opposed to `command.com' under MS-DOS or `cmd.exe' under MS-Windows or OS/2) may be useful for `awk' programming. The DJGPP collection of tools includes an MS-DOS port of Bash, and several shells are available for OS/2, including `ksh'. Under MS-Windows, OS/2 and MS-DOS, `gawk' (and many other text programs) silently translate end-of-line `"\r\n"' to `"\n"' on input and `"\n"' to `"\r\n"' on output. A special `BINMODE' variable (c.e.) allows control over these translations and is interpreted as follows: * If `BINMODE' is `"r"', or one, then binary mode is set on read (i.e., no translations on reads). * If `BINMODE' is `"w"', or two, then binary mode is set on write (i.e., no translations on writes). * If `BINMODE' is `"rw"' or `"wr"' or three, binary mode is set for both read and write. * `BINMODE=NON-NULL-STRING' is the same as `BINMODE=3' (i.e., no translations on reads or writes). However, `gawk' issues a warning message if the string is not one of `"rw"' or `"wr"'. The modes for standard input and standard output are set one time only (after the command line is read, but before processing any of the `awk' program). Setting `BINMODE' for standard input or standard output is accomplished by using an appropriate `-v BINMODE=N' option on the command line. `BINMODE' is set at the time a file or pipe is opened and cannot be changed mid-stream. The name `BINMODE' was chosen to match `mawk' (*note Other Versions::). `mawk' and `gawk' handle `BINMODE' similarly; however, `mawk' adds a `-W BINMODE=N' option and an environment variable that can set `BINMODE', `RS', and `ORS'. The files `binmode[1-3].awk' (under `gnu/lib/awk' in some of the prepared distributions) have been chosen to match `mawk''s `-W BINMODE=N' option. These can be changed or discarded; in particular, the setting of `RS' giving the fewest "surprises" is open to debate. `mawk' uses `RS = "\r\n"' if binary mode is set on read, which is appropriate for files with the MS-DOS-style end-of-line. To illustrate, the following examples set binary mode on writes for standard output and other files, and set `ORS' as the "usual" MS-DOS-style end-of-line: gawk -v BINMODE=2 -v ORS="\r\n" ... or: gawk -v BINMODE=w -f binmode2.awk ... These give the same result as the `-W BINMODE=2' option in `mawk'. The following changes the record separator to `"\r\n"' and sets binary mode on reads, but does not affect the mode on standard input: gawk -v RS="\r\n" --source "BEGIN { BINMODE = 1 }" ... or: gawk -f binmode1.awk ... With proper quoting, in the first example the setting of `RS' can be moved into the `BEGIN' rule. File: gawk.info, Node: Cygwin, Next: MSYS, Prev: PC Using, Up: PC Installation B.3.1.5 Using `gawk' In The Cygwin Environment .............................................. `gawk' can be built and used "out of the box" under MS-Windows if you are using the Cygwin environment (http://www.cygwin.com). This environment provides an excellent simulation of Unix, using the GNU tools, such as Bash, the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), GNU Make, and other GNU programs. Compilation and installation for Cygwin is the same as for a Unix system: tar -xvpzf gawk-4.0.0.tar.gz cd gawk-4.0.0 ./configure make When compared to GNU/Linux on the same system, the `configure' step on Cygwin takes considerably longer. However, it does finish, and then the `make' proceeds as usual. NOTE: The `|&' operator and TCP/IP networking (*note TCP/IP Networking::) are fully supported in the Cygwin environment. This is not true for any other environment on MS-Windows. File: gawk.info, Node: MSYS, Prev: Cygwin, Up: PC Installation B.3.1.6 Using `gawk' In The MSYS Environment ............................................ In the MSYS environment under MS-Windows, `gawk' automatically uses binary mode for reading and writing files. Thus there is no need to use the `BINMODE' variable. This can cause problems with other Unix-like components that have been ported to MS-Windows that expect `gawk' to do automatic translation of `"\r\n"', since it won't. Caveat Emptor! File: gawk.info, Node: VMS Installation, Prev: PC Installation, Up: Non-Unix Installation B.3.2 How to Compile and Install `gawk' on VMS ---------------------------------------------- This node describes how to compile and install `gawk' under VMS. The older designation "VMS" is used throughout to refer to OpenVMS. * Menu: * VMS Compilation:: How to compile `gawk' under VMS. * VMS Installation Details:: How to install `gawk' under VMS. * VMS Running:: How to run `gawk' under VMS. * VMS Old Gawk:: An old version comes with some VMS systems. File: gawk.info, Node: VMS Compilation, Next: VMS Installation Details, Up: VMS Installation B.3.2.1 Compiling `gawk' on VMS ............................... To compile `gawk' under VMS, there is a `DCL' command procedure that issues all the necessary `CC' and `LINK' commands. There is also a `Makefile' for use with the `MMS' utility. From the source directory, use either: $ @[.VMS]VMSBUILD.COM or: $ MMS/DESCRIPTION=[.VMS]DESCRIP.MMS GAWK Older versions of `gawk' could be built with VAX C or GNU C on VAX/VMS, as well as with DEC C, but that is no longer supported. DEC C (also briefly known as "Compaq C" and now known as "HP C," but referred to here as "DEC C") is required. Both `VMSBUILD.COM' and `DESCRIP.MMS' contain some obsolete support for the older compilers but are set up to use DEC C by default. `gawk' has been tested under Alpha/VMS 7.3-1 using Compaq C V6.4, and on Alpha/VMS 7.3, Alpha/VMS 7.3-2, and IA64/VMS 8.3.(1) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The IA64 architecture is also known as "Itanium." File: gawk.info, Node: VMS Installation Details, Next: VMS Running, Prev: VMS Compilation, Up: VMS Installation B.3.2.2 Installing `gawk' on VMS ................................ To install `gawk', all you need is a "foreign" command, which is a `DCL' symbol whose value begins with a dollar sign. For example: $ GAWK :== $disk1:[gnubin]GAWK Substitute the actual location of `gawk.exe' for `$disk1:[gnubin]'. The symbol should be placed in the `login.com' of any user who wants to run `gawk', so that it is defined every time the user logs on. Alternatively, the symbol may be placed in the system-wide `sylogin.com' procedure, which allows all users to run `gawk'. Optionally, the help entry can be loaded into a VMS help library: $ LIBRARY/HELP SYS$HELP:HELPLIB [.VMS]GAWK.HLP (You may want to substitute a site-specific help library rather than the standard VMS library `HELPLIB'.) After loading the help text, the command: $ HELP GAWK provides information about both the `gawk' implementation and the `awk' programming language. The logical name `AWK_LIBRARY' can designate a default location for `awk' program files. For the `-f' option, if the specified file name has no device or directory path information in it, `gawk' looks in the current directory first, then in the directory specified by the translation of `AWK_LIBRARY' if the file is not found. If, after searching in both directories, the file still is not found, `gawk' appends the suffix `.awk' to the filename and retries the file search. If `AWK_LIBRARY' has no definition, a default value of `SYS$LIBRARY:' is used for it. File: gawk.info, Node: VMS Running, Next: VMS Old Gawk, Prev: VMS Installation Details, Up: VMS Installation B.3.2.3 Running `gawk' on VMS ............................. Command-line parsing and quoting conventions are significantly different on VMS, so examples in this Info file or from other sources often need minor changes. They _are_ minor though, and all `awk' programs should run correctly. Here are a couple of trivial tests: $ gawk -- "BEGIN {print ""Hello, World!""}" $ gawk -"W" version ! could also be -"W version" or "-W version" Note that uppercase and mixed-case text must be quoted. The VMS port of `gawk' includes a `DCL'-style interface in addition to the original shell-style interface (see the help entry for details). One side effect of dual command-line parsing is that if there is only a single parameter (as in the quoted string program above), the command becomes ambiguous. To work around this, the normally optional `--' flag is required to force Unix-style parsing rather than `DCL' parsing. If any other dash-type options (or multiple parameters such as data files to process) are present, there is no ambiguity and `--' can be omitted. The default search path, when looking for `awk' program files specified by the `-f' option, is `"SYS$DISK:[],AWK_LIBRARY:"'. The logical name `AWKPATH' can be used to override this default. The format of `AWKPATH' is a comma-separated list of directory specifications. When defining it, the value should be quoted so that it retains a single translation and not a multitranslation `RMS' searchlist. File: gawk.info, Node: VMS Old Gawk, Prev: VMS Running, Up: VMS Installation B.3.2.4 Some VMS Systems Have An Old Version of `gawk' ...................................................... Some versions of VMS have an old version of `gawk'. To access it, define a symbol, as follows: $ gawk :== $sys$common:[syshlp.examples.tcpip.snmp]gawk.exe This is apparently version 2.15.6, which is extremely old. We recommend compiling and using the current version. File: gawk.info, Node: Bugs, Next: Other Versions, Prev: Non-Unix Installation, Up: Installation B.4 Reporting Problems and Bugs =============================== There is nothing more dangerous than a bored archeologist. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy If you have problems with `gawk' or think that you have found a bug, please report it to the developers; we cannot promise to do anything but we might well want to fix it. Before reporting a bug, make sure you have actually found a real bug. Carefully reread the documentation and see if it really says you can do what you're trying to do. If it's not clear whether you should be able to do something or not, report that too; it's a bug in the documentation! Before reporting a bug or trying to fix it yourself, try to isolate it to the smallest possible `awk' program and input data file that reproduces the problem. Then send us the program and data file, some idea of what kind of Unix system you're using, the compiler you used to compile `gawk', and the exact results `gawk' gave you. Also say what you expected to occur; this helps us decide whether the problem is really in the documentation. Please include the version number of `gawk' you are using. You can get this information with the command `gawk --version'. Once you have a precise problem, send email to <bug-gawk@gnu.org>. Using this address automatically sends a carbon copy of your mail to me. If necessary, I can be reached directly at <arnold@skeeve.com>. The bug reporting address is preferred since the email list is archived at the GNU Project. _All email should be in English, since that is my native language._ CAUTION: Do _not_ try to report bugs in `gawk' by posting to the Usenet/Internet newsgroup `comp.lang.awk'. While the `gawk' developers do occasionally read this newsgroup, there is no guarantee that we will see your posting. The steps described above are the official recognized ways for reporting bugs. Really. NOTE: Many distributions of GNU/Linux and the various BSD-based operating systems have their own bug reporting systems. If you report a bug using your distribution's bug reporting system, _please_ also send a copy to <bug-gawk@gnu.org>. This is for two reasons. First, while some distributions forward bug reports "upstream" to the GNU mailing list, many don't, so there is a good chance that the `gawk' maintainer won't even see the bug report! Second, mail to the GNU list is archived, and having everything at the GNU project keeps things self-contained and not dependant on other web sites. Non-bug suggestions are always welcome as well. If you have questions about things that are unclear in the documentation or are just obscure features, ask me; I will try to help you out, although I may not have the time to fix the problem. You can send me electronic mail at the Internet address noted previously. If you find bugs in one of the non-Unix ports of `gawk', please send an electronic mail message to the person who maintains that port. They are named in the following list, as well as in the `README' file in the `gawk' distribution. Information in the `README' file should be considered authoritative if it conflicts with this Info file. The people maintaining the non-Unix ports of `gawk' are as follows: MS-Windows with MINGW and DJGPP Eli Zaretskii, <eliz@gnu.org>. Scott Deifik, <scottd.mail@sbcglobal.net>. OS/2 Andreas Buening, <andreas.buening@nexgo.de>. VMS Pat Rankin, <rankin@pactechdata.com>. z/OS (OS/390) Dave Pitts, <dpitts@cozx.com>. If your bug is also reproducible under Unix, please send a copy of your report to the <bug-gawk@gnu.org> email list as well. File: gawk.info, Node: Other Versions, Prev: Bugs, Up: Installation B.5 Other Freely Available `awk' Implementations ================================================ It's kind of fun to put comments like this in your awk code. `// Do C++ comments work? answer: yes! of course' Michael Brennan There are a number of other freely available `awk' implementations. This minor node briefly describes where to get them: Unix `awk' Brian Kernighan, one of the original designers of Unix `awk', has made his implementation of `awk' freely available. You can retrieve this version via the World Wide Web from his home page (http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk). It is available in several archive formats: Shell archive `http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/btl.mirror/awk.shar' Compressed `tar' file `http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/btl.mirror/awk.tar.gz' Zip file `http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/btl.mirror/awk.zip' This version requires an ISO C (1990 standard) compiler; the C compiler from GCC (the GNU Compiler Collection) works quite nicely. *Note Common Extensions::, for a list of extensions in this `awk' that are not in POSIX `awk'. `mawk' Michael Brennan wrote an independent implementation of `awk', called `mawk'. It is available under the GPL (*note Copying::), just as `gawk' is. The original distribution site for the `mawk' source code no longer has it. A copy is available at `http://www.skeeve.com/gawk/mawk1.3.3.tar.gz'. In 2009, Thomas Dickey took on `mawk' maintenance. Basic information is available on the project's web page (http://www.invisible-island.net/mawk/mawk.html). The download URL is `http://invisible-island.net/datafiles/release/mawk.tar.gz'. Once you have it, `gunzip' may be used to decompress this file. Installation is similar to `gawk''s (*note Unix Installation::). *Note Common Extensions::, for a list of extensions in `mawk' that are not in POSIX `awk'. `awka' Written by Andrew Sumner, `awka' translates `awk' programs into C, compiles them, and links them with a library of functions that provides the core `awk' functionality. It also has a number of extensions. The `awk' translator is released under the GPL, and the library is under the LGPL. To get `awka', go to `http://sourceforge.net/projects/awka'. The project seems to be frozen; no new code changes have been made since approximately 2003. `pawk' Nelson H.F. Beebe at the University of Utah has modified Brian Kernighan's `awk' to provide timing and profiling information. It is different from `pgawk' (*note Profiling::), in that it uses CPU-based profiling, not line-count profiling. You may find it at either `ftp://ftp.math.utah.edu/pub/pawk/pawk-20030606.tar.gz' or `http://www.math.utah.edu/pub/pawk/pawk-20030606.tar.gz'. Busybox Awk Busybox is a GPL-licensed program providing small versions of many applications within a single executable. It is aimed at embedded systems. It includes a full implementation of POSIX `awk'. When building it, be careful not to do `make install' as it will overwrite copies of other applications in your `/usr/local/bin'. For more information, see the project's home page (http://busybox.net). The OpenSolaris POSIX `awk' The version of `awk' in `/usr/xpg4/bin' on Solaris is more-or-less POSIX-compliant. It is based on the `awk' from Mortice Kern Systems for PCs. The source code can be downloaded from the OpenSolaris web site (http://www.opensolaris.org). This author was able to make it compile and work under GNU/Linux with 1-2 hours of work. Making it more generally portable (using GNU Autoconf and/or Automake) would take more work, and this has not been done, at least to our knowledge. `jawk' This is an interpreter for `awk' written in Java. It claims to be a full interpreter, although because it uses Java facilities for I/O and for regexp matching, the language it supports is different from POSIX `awk'. More information is available on the project's home page (http://jawk.sourceforge.net). Libmawk This is an embeddable `awk' interpreter derived from `mawk'. For more information see `http://repo.hu/projects/libmawk/'. QSE Awk This is an embeddable `awk' interpreter. For more information see `http://code.google.com/p/qse/' and `http://awk.info/?tools/qse'. `QTawk' This is an independent implementation of `awk' distributed under the GPL. It has a large number of extensions over standard `awk' and may not be 100% syntactically compatible with it. See `http://www.quiktrim.org/QTawk.html' for more information, including the manual and a download link. `xgawk' XML `gawk'. This is a fork of the `gawk' 3.1.6 source base to support processing XML files. It has a number of interesting extensions which should one day be integrated into the main `gawk' code base. For more information, see the XMLgawk project web site (http://xgawk.sourceforge.net). File: gawk.info, Node: Notes, Next: Basic Concepts, Prev: Installation, Up: Top Appendix C Implementation Notes ******************************* This appendix contains information mainly of interest to implementers and maintainers of `gawk'. Everything in it applies specifically to `gawk' and not to other implementations. * Menu: * Compatibility Mode:: How to disable certain `gawk' extensions. * Additions:: Making Additions To `gawk'. * Dynamic Extensions:: Adding new built-in functions to `gawk'. * Future Extensions:: New features that may be implemented one day. File: gawk.info, Node: Compatibility Mode, Next: Additions, Up: Notes C.1 Downward Compatibility and Debugging ======================================== *Note POSIX/GNU::, for a summary of the GNU extensions to the `awk' language and program. All of these features can be turned off by invoking `gawk' with the `--traditional' option or with the `--posix' option. If `gawk' is compiled for debugging with `-DDEBUG', then there is one more option available on the command line: `-Y' `--parsedebug' Prints out the parse stack information as the program is being parsed. This option is intended only for serious `gawk' developers and not for the casual user. It probably has not even been compiled into your version of `gawk', since it slows down execution. File: gawk.info, Node: Additions, Next: Dynamic Extensions, Prev: Compatibility Mode, Up: Notes C.2 Making Additions to `gawk' ============================== If you find that you want to enhance `gawk' in a significant fashion, you are perfectly free to do so. That is the point of having free software; the source code is available and you are free to change it as you want (*note Copying::). This minor node discusses the ways you might want to change `gawk' as well as any considerations you should bear in mind. * Menu: * Accessing The Source:: Accessing the Git repository. * Adding Code:: Adding code to the main body of `gawk'. * New Ports:: Porting `gawk' to a new operating system. File: gawk.info, Node: Accessing The Source, Next: Adding Code, Up: Additions C.2.1 Accessing The `gawk' Git Repository ----------------------------------------- As `gawk' is Free Software, the source code is always available. *note Gawk Distribution::, describes how to get and build the formal, released versions of `gawk'. However, if you want to modify `gawk' and contribute back your changes, you will probably wish to work with the development version. To do so, you will need to access the `gawk' source code repository. The code is maintained using the Git distributed version control system (http://git-scm.com/). You will need to install it if your system doesn't have it. Once you have done so, use the command: git clone git://git.savannah.gnu.org/gawk.git This will clone the `gawk' repository. If you are behind a firewall that will not allow you to use the Git native protocol, you can still access the repository using: git clone http://git.savannah.gnu.org/r/gawk.git Once you have made changes, you can use `git diff' to produce a patch, and send that to the `gawk' maintainer; see *note Bugs:: for how to do that. Finally, if you cannot install Git (e.g., if it hasn't been ported yet to your operating system), you can use the Git-CVS gateway to check out a copy using CVS, as follows: cvs -d:pserver:anonymous@pserver.git.sv.gnu.org:/gawk.git co -d gawk master File: gawk.info, Node: Adding Code, Next: New Ports, Prev: Accessing The Source, Up: Additions C.2.2 Adding New Features ------------------------- You are free to add any new features you like to `gawk'. However, if you want your changes to be incorporated into the `gawk' distribution, there are several steps that you need to take in order to make it possible to include your changes: 1. Before building the new feature into `gawk' itself, consider writing it as an extension module (*note Dynamic Extensions::). If that's not possible, continue with the rest of the steps in this list. 2. Be prepared to sign the appropriate paperwork. In order for the FSF to distribute your changes, you must either place those changes in the public domain and submit a signed statement to that effect, or assign the copyright in your changes to the FSF. Both of these actions are easy to do and _many_ people have done so already. If you have questions, please contact me (*note Bugs::), or <assign@gnu.org>. 3. Get the latest version. It is much easier for me to integrate changes if they are relative to the most recent distributed version of `gawk'. If your version of `gawk' is very old, I may not be able to integrate them at all. (*Note Getting::, for information on getting the latest version of `gawk'.) 4. See *note (Version)Top:: standards, GNU Coding Standards. This document describes how GNU software should be written. If you haven't read it, please do so, preferably _before_ starting to modify `gawk'. (The `GNU Coding Standards' are available from the GNU Project's web site (http://www.gnu.org/prep/standards_toc.html). Texinfo, Info, and DVI versions are also available.) 5. Use the `gawk' coding style. The C code for `gawk' follows the instructions in the `GNU Coding Standards', with minor exceptions. The code is formatted using the traditional "K&R" style, particularly as regards to the placement of braces and the use of TABs. In brief, the coding rules for `gawk' are as follows: * Use ANSI/ISO style (prototype) function headers when defining functions. * Put the name of the function at the beginning of its own line. * Put the return type of the function, even if it is `int', on the line above the line with the name and arguments of the function. * Put spaces around parentheses used in control structures (`if', `while', `for', `do', `switch', and `return'). * Do not put spaces in front of parentheses used in function calls. * Put spaces around all C operators and after commas in function calls. * Do not use the comma operator to produce multiple side effects, except in `for' loop initialization and increment parts, and in macro bodies. * Use real TABs for indenting, not spaces. * Use the "K&R" brace layout style. * Use comparisons against `NULL' and `'\0'' in the conditions of `if', `while', and `for' statements, as well as in the `case's of `switch' statements, instead of just the plain pointer or character value. * Use the `TRUE', `FALSE' and `NULL' symbolic constants and the character constant `'\0'' where appropriate, instead of `1' and `0'. * Provide one-line descriptive comments for each function. * Do not use the `alloca()' function for allocating memory off the stack. Its use causes more portability trouble than is worth the minor benefit of not having to free the storage. Instead, use `malloc()' and `free()'. * Do not use comparisons of the form `! strcmp(a, b)' or similar. As Henry Spencer once said, "`strcmp()' is not a boolean!" Instead, use `strcmp(a, b) == 0'. * If adding new bit flag values, use explicit hexadecimal constants (`0x001', `0x002', `0x004', and son on) instead of shifting one left by successive amounts (`(1<<0)', `(1<<1)', and so on). NOTE: If I have to reformat your code to follow the coding style used in `gawk', I may not bother to integrate your changes at all. 6. Update the documentation. Along with your new code, please supply new sections and/or chapters for this Info file. If at all possible, please use real Texinfo, instead of just supplying unformatted ASCII text (although even that is better than no documentation at all). Conventions to be followed in `GAWK: Effective AWK Programming' are provided after the `@bye' at the end of the Texinfo source file. If possible, please update the `man' page as well. You will also have to sign paperwork for your documentation changes. 7. Submit changes as unified diffs. Use `diff -u -r -N' to compare the original `gawk' source tree with your version. I recommend using the GNU version of `diff'. Send the output produced by either run of `diff' to me when you submit your changes. (*Note Bugs::, for the electronic mail information.) Using this format makes it easy for me to apply your changes to the master version of the `gawk' source code (using `patch'). If I have to apply the changes manually, using a text editor, I may not do so, particularly if there are lots of changes. 8. Include an entry for the `ChangeLog' file with your submission. This helps further minimize the amount of work I have to do, making it easier for me to accept patches. Although this sounds like a lot of work, please remember that while you may write the new code, I have to maintain it and support it. If it isn't possible for me to do that with a minimum of extra work, then I probably will not. File: gawk.info, Node: New Ports, Prev: Adding Code, Up: Additions C.2.3 Porting `gawk' to a New Operating System ---------------------------------------------- If you want to port `gawk' to a new operating system, there are several steps: 1. Follow the guidelines in *note Adding Code::, concerning coding style, submission of diffs, and so on. 2. Be prepared to sign the appropriate paperwork. In order for the FSF to distribute your code, you must either place your code in the public domain and submit a signed statement to that effect, or assign the copyright in your code to the FSF. Both of these actions are easy to do and _many_ people have done so already. If you have questions, please contact me, or <gnu@gnu.org>. 3. When doing a port, bear in mind that your code must coexist peacefully with the rest of `gawk' and the other ports. Avoid gratuitous changes to the system-independent parts of the code. If at all possible, avoid sprinkling `#ifdef's just for your port throughout the code. If the changes needed for a particular system affect too much of the code, I probably will not accept them. In such a case, you can, of course, distribute your changes on your own, as long as you comply with the GPL (*note Copying::). 4. A number of the files that come with `gawk' are maintained by other people. Thus, you should not change them unless it is for a very good reason; i.e., changes are not out of the question, but changes to these files are scrutinized extra carefully. The files are `dfa.c', `dfa.h', `getopt1.c', `getopt.c', `getopt.h', `install-sh', `mkinstalldirs', `regcomp.c', `regex.c', `regexec.c', `regexex.c', `regex.h', `regex_internal.c', and `regex_internal.h'. 5. Be willing to continue to maintain the port. Non-Unix operating systems are supported by volunteers who maintain the code needed to compile and run `gawk' on their systems. If noone volunteers to maintain a port, it becomes unsupported and it may be necessary to remove it from the distribution. 6. Supply an appropriate `gawkmisc.???' file. Each port has its own `gawkmisc.???' that implements certain operating system specific functions. This is cleaner than a plethora of `#ifdef's scattered throughout the code. The `gawkmisc.c' in the main source directory includes the appropriate `gawkmisc.???' file from each subdirectory. Be sure to update it as well. Each port's `gawkmisc.???' file has a suffix reminiscent of the machine or operating system for the port--for example, `pc/gawkmisc.pc' and `vms/gawkmisc.vms'. The use of separate suffixes, instead of plain `gawkmisc.c', makes it possible to move files from a port's subdirectory into the main subdirectory, without accidentally destroying the real `gawkmisc.c' file. (Currently, this is only an issue for the PC operating system ports.) 7. Supply a `Makefile' as well as any other C source and header files that are necessary for your operating system. All your code should be in a separate subdirectory, with a name that is the same as, or reminiscent of, either your operating system or the computer system. If possible, try to structure things so that it is not necessary to move files out of the subdirectory into the main source directory. If that is not possible, then be sure to avoid using names for your files that duplicate the names of files in the main source directory. 8. Update the documentation. Please write a section (or sections) for this Info file describing the installation and compilation steps needed to compile and/or install `gawk' for your system. Following these steps makes it much easier to integrate your changes into `gawk' and have them coexist happily with other operating systems' code that is already there. In the code that you supply and maintain, feel free to use a coding style and brace layout that suits your taste. File: gawk.info, Node: Dynamic Extensions, Next: Future Extensions, Prev: Additions, Up: Notes C.3 Adding New Built-in Functions to `gawk' =========================================== Danger Will Robinson! Danger!! Warning! Warning! The Robot It is possible to add new built-in functions to `gawk' using dynamically loaded libraries. This facility is available on systems (such as GNU/Linux) that support the C `dlopen()' and `dlsym()' functions. This minor node describes how to write and use dynamically loaded extensions for `gawk'. Experience with programming in C or C++ is necessary when reading this minor node. CAUTION: The facilities described in this minor node are very much subject to change in a future `gawk' release. Be aware that you may have to re-do everything, at some future time. If you have written your own dynamic extensions, be sure to recompile them for each new `gawk' release. There is no guarantee of binary compatibility between different releases, nor will there ever be such a guarantee. NOTE: When `--sandbox' is specified, extensions are disabled (*note Options::. * Menu: * Internals:: A brief look at some `gawk' internals. * Plugin License:: A note about licensing. * Sample Library:: A example of new functions. File: gawk.info, Node: Internals, Next: Plugin License, Up: Dynamic Extensions C.3.1 A Minimal Introduction to `gawk' Internals ------------------------------------------------ The truth is that `gawk' was not designed for simple extensibility. The facilities for adding functions using shared libraries work, but are something of a "bag on the side." Thus, this tour is brief and simplistic; would-be `gawk' hackers are encouraged to spend some time reading the source code before trying to write extensions based on the material presented here. Of particular note are the files `awk.h', `builtin.c', and `eval.c'. Reading `awkgram.y' in order to see how the parse tree is built would also be of use. With the disclaimers out of the way, the following types, structure members, functions, and macros are declared in `awk.h' and are of use when writing extensions. The next minor node shows how they are used: `AWKNUM' An `AWKNUM' is the internal type of `awk' floating-point numbers. Typically, it is a C `double'. `NODE' Just about everything is done using objects of type `NODE'. These contain both strings and numbers, as well as variables and arrays. `AWKNUM force_number(NODE *n)' This macro forces a value to be numeric. It returns the actual numeric value contained in the node. It may end up calling an internal `gawk' function. `void force_string(NODE *n)' This macro guarantees that a `NODE''s string value is current. It may end up calling an internal `gawk' function. It also guarantees that the string is zero-terminated. `void force_wstring(NODE *n)' Similarly, this macro guarantees that a `NODE''s wide-string value is current. It may end up calling an internal `gawk' function. It also guarantees that the wide string is zero-terminated. `size_t get_curfunc_arg_count(void)' This function returns the actual number of parameters passed to the current function. Inside the code of an extension this can be used to determine the maximum index which is safe to use with `get_actual_argument'. If this value is greater than `nargs', the function was called incorrectly from the `awk' program. `nargs' Inside an extension function, this is the maximum number of expected parameters, as set by the `make_builtin()' function. `n->stptr' `n->stlen' The data and length of a `NODE''s string value, respectively. The string is _not_ guaranteed to be zero-terminated. If you need to pass the string value to a C library function, save the value in `n->stptr[n->stlen]', assign `'\0'' to it, call the routine, and then restore the value. `n->wstptr' `n->wstlen' The data and length of a `NODE''s wide-string value, respectively. Use `force_wstring()' to make sure these values are current. `n->type' The type of the `NODE'. This is a C `enum'. Values should be one of `Node_var', `Node_var_new', or `Node_var_array' for function parameters. `n->vname' The "variable name" of a node. This is not of much use inside externally written extensions. `void assoc_clear(NODE *n)' Clears the associative array pointed to by `n'. Make sure that `n->type == Node_var_array' first. `NODE **assoc_lookup(NODE *symbol, NODE *subs, int reference)' Finds, and installs if necessary, array elements. `symbol' is the array, `subs' is the subscript. This is usually a value created with `make_string()' (see below). `reference' should be `TRUE' if it is an error to use the value before it is created. Typically, `FALSE' is the correct value to use from extension functions. `NODE *make_string(char *s, size_t len)' Take a C string and turn it into a pointer to a `NODE' that can be stored appropriately. This is permanent storage; understanding of `gawk' memory management is helpful. `NODE *make_number(AWKNUM val)' Take an `AWKNUM' and turn it into a pointer to a `NODE' that can be stored appropriately. This is permanent storage; understanding of `gawk' memory management is helpful. `NODE *dupnode(NODE *n)' Duplicate a node. In most cases, this increments an internal reference count instead of actually duplicating the entire `NODE'; understanding of `gawk' memory management is helpful. `void unref(NODE *n)' This macro releases the memory associated with a `NODE' allocated with `make_string()' or `make_number()'. Understanding of `gawk' memory management is helpful. `void make_builtin(const char *name, NODE *(*func)(NODE *), int count)' Register a C function pointed to by `func' as new built-in function `name'. `name' is a regular C string. `count' is the maximum number of arguments that the function takes. The function should be written in the following manner: /* do_xxx --- do xxx function for gawk */ NODE * do_xxx(int nargs) { ... } `NODE *get_argument(int i)' This function is called from within a C extension function to get the `i'-th argument from the function call. The first argument is argument zero. `NODE *get_actual_argument(int i,' ` int optional, int wantarray);' This function retrieves a particular argument `i'. `wantarray' is `TRUE' if the argument should be an array, `FALSE' otherwise. If `optional' is `TRUE', the argument need not have been supplied. If it wasn't, the return value is `NULL'. It is a fatal error if `optional' is `TRUE' but the argument was not provided. `get_scalar_argument(i, opt)' This is a convenience macro that calls `get_actual_argument()'. `get_array_argument(i, opt)' This is a convenience macro that calls `get_actual_argument()'. `void update_ERRNO(void)' This function is called from within a C extension function to set the value of `gawk''s `ERRNO' variable, based on the current value of the C `errno' global variable. It is provided as a convenience. `void update_ERRNO_saved(int errno_saved)' This function is called from within a C extension function to set the value of `gawk''s `ERRNO' variable, based on the error value provided as the argument. It is provided as a convenience. `void register_deferred_variable(const char *name, NODE *(*load_func)(void))' This function is called to register a function to be called when a reference to an undefined variable with the given name is encountered. The callback function will never be called if the variable exists already, so, unless the calling code is running at program startup, it should first check whether a variable of the given name already exists. The argument function must return a pointer to a `NODE' containing the newly created variable. This function is used to implement the builtin `ENVIRON' and `PROCINFO' arrays, so you can refer to them for examples. `void register_open_hook(void *(*open_func)(IOBUF *))' This function is called to register a function to be called whenever a new data file is opened, leading to the creation of an `IOBUF' structure in `iop_alloc()'. After creating the new `IOBUF', `iop_alloc()' will call (in reverse order of registration, so the last function registered is called first) each open hook until one returns non-`NULL'. If any hook returns a non-`NULL' value, that value is assigned to the `IOBUF''s `opaque' field (which will presumably point to a structure containing additional state associated with the input processing), and no further open hooks are called. The function called will most likely want to set the `IOBUF''s `get_record' method to indicate that future input records should be retrieved by calling that method instead of using the standard `gawk' input processing. And the function will also probably want to set the `IOBUF''s `close_func' method to be called when the file is closed to clean up any state associated with the input. Finally, hook functions should be prepared to receive an `IOBUF' structure where the `fd' field is set to `INVALID_HANDLE', meaning that `gawk' was not able to open the file itself. In this case, the hook function must be able to successfully open the file and place a valid file descriptor there. Currently, for example, the hook function facility is used to implement the XML parser shared library extension. For more info, please look in `awk.h' and in `io.c'. An argument that is supposed to be an array needs to be handled with some extra code, in case the array being passed in is actually from a function parameter. The following boilerplate code shows how to do this: NODE *the_arg; /* assume need 3rd arg, 0-based */ the_arg = get_array_argument(2, FALSE); Again, you should spend time studying the `gawk' internals; don't just blindly copy this code. File: gawk.info, Node: Plugin License, Next: Sample Library, Prev: Internals, Up: Dynamic Extensions C.3.2 Extension Licensing ------------------------- Every dynamic extension should define the global symbol `plugin_is_GPL_compatible' to assert that it has been licensed under a GPL-compatible license. If this symbol does not exist, `gawk' will emit a fatal error and exit. The declared type of the symbol should be `int'. It does not need to be in any allocated section, though. The code merely asserts that the symbol exists in the global scope. Something like this is enough: int plugin_is_GPL_compatible; File: gawk.info, Node: Sample Library, Prev: Plugin License, Up: Dynamic Extensions C.3.3 Example: Directory and File Operation Built-ins ----------------------------------------------------- Two useful functions that are not in `awk' are `chdir()' (so that an `awk' program can change its directory) and `stat()' (so that an `awk' program can gather information about a file). This minor node implements these functions for `gawk' in an external extension library. * Menu: * Internal File Description:: What the new functions will do. * Internal File Ops:: The code for internal file operations. * Using Internal File Ops:: How to use an external extension. File: gawk.info, Node: Internal File Description, Next: Internal File Ops, Up: Sample Library C.3.3.1 Using `chdir()' and `stat()' .................................... This minor node shows how to use the new functions at the `awk' level once they've been integrated into the running `gawk' interpreter. Using `chdir()' is very straightforward. It takes one argument, the new directory to change to: ... newdir = "/home/arnold/funstuff" ret = chdir(newdir) if (ret < 0) { printf("could not change to %s: %s\n", newdir, ERRNO) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } ... The return value is negative if the `chdir' failed, and `ERRNO' (*note Built-in Variables::) is set to a string indicating the error. Using `stat()' is a bit more complicated. The C `stat()' function fills in a structure that has a fair amount of information. The right way to model this in `awk' is to fill in an associative array with the appropriate information: file = "/home/arnold/.profile" fdata[1] = "x" # force `fdata' to be an array ret = stat(file, fdata) if (ret < 0) { printf("could not stat %s: %s\n", file, ERRNO) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } printf("size of %s is %d bytes\n", file, fdata["size"]) The `stat()' function always clears the data array, even if the `stat()' fails. It fills in the following elements: `"name"' The name of the file that was `stat()''ed. `"dev"' `"ino"' The file's device and inode numbers, respectively. `"mode"' The file's mode, as a numeric value. This includes both the file's type and its permissions. `"nlink"' The number of hard links (directory entries) the file has. `"uid"' `"gid"' The numeric user and group ID numbers of the file's owner. `"size"' The size in bytes of the file. `"blocks"' The number of disk blocks the file actually occupies. This may not be a function of the file's size if the file has holes. `"atime"' `"mtime"' `"ctime"' The file's last access, modification, and inode update times, respectively. These are numeric timestamps, suitable for formatting with `strftime()' (*note Built-in::). `"pmode"' The file's "printable mode." This is a string representation of the file's type and permissions, such as what is produced by `ls -l'--for example, `"drwxr-xr-x"'. `"type"' A printable string representation of the file's type. The value is one of the following: `"blockdev"' `"chardev"' The file is a block or character device ("special file"). `"directory"' The file is a directory. `"fifo"' The file is a named-pipe (also known as a FIFO). `"file"' The file is just a regular file. `"socket"' The file is an `AF_UNIX' ("Unix domain") socket in the filesystem. `"symlink"' The file is a symbolic link. Several additional elements may be present depending upon the operating system and the type of the file. You can test for them in your `awk' program by using the `in' operator (*note Reference to Elements::): `"blksize"' The preferred block size for I/O to the file. This field is not present on all POSIX-like systems in the C `stat' structure. `"linkval"' If the file is a symbolic link, this element is the name of the file the link points to (i.e., the value of the link). `"rdev"' `"major"' `"minor"' If the file is a block or character device file, then these values represent the numeric device number and the major and minor components of that number, respectively. File: gawk.info, Node: Internal File Ops, Next: Using Internal File Ops, Prev: Internal File Description, Up: Sample Library C.3.3.2 C Code for `chdir()' and `stat()' ......................................... Here is the C code for these extensions. They were written for GNU/Linux. The code needs some more work for complete portability to other POSIX-compliant systems:(1) #include "awk.h" #include <sys/sysmacros.h> int plugin_is_GPL_compatible; /* do_chdir --- provide dynamically loaded chdir() builtin for gawk */ static NODE * do_chdir(int nargs) { NODE *newdir; int ret = -1; if (do_lint && get_curfunc_arg_count() != 1) lintwarn("chdir: called with incorrect number of arguments"); newdir = get_scalar_argument(0, FALSE); The file includes the `"awk.h"' header file for definitions for the `gawk' internals. It includes `<sys/sysmacros.h>' for access to the `major()' and `minor'() macros. By convention, for an `awk' function `foo', the function that implements it is called `do_foo'. The function should take a `int' argument, usually called `nargs', that represents the number of defined arguments for the function. The `newdir' variable represents the new directory to change to, retrieved with `get_scalar_argument()'. Note that the first argument is numbered zero. This code actually accomplishes the `chdir()'. It first forces the argument to be a string and passes the string value to the `chdir()' system call. If the `chdir()' fails, `ERRNO' is updated. (void) force_string(newdir); ret = chdir(newdir->stptr); if (ret < 0) update_ERRNO(); Finally, the function returns the return value to the `awk' level: return make_number((AWKNUM) ret); } The `stat()' built-in is more involved. First comes a function that turns a numeric mode into a printable representation (e.g., 644 becomes `-rw-r--r--'). This is omitted here for brevity: /* format_mode --- turn a stat mode field into something readable */ static char * format_mode(unsigned long fmode) { ... } Next comes the `do_stat()' function. It starts with variable declarations and argument checking: /* do_stat --- provide a stat() function for gawk */ static NODE * do_stat(int nargs) { NODE *file, *array, *tmp; struct stat sbuf; int ret; NODE **aptr; char *pmode; /* printable mode */ char *type = "unknown"; if (do_lint && get_curfunc_arg_count() > 2) lintwarn("stat: called with too many arguments"); Then comes the actual work. First, the function gets the arguments. Then, it always clears the array. The code use `lstat()' (instead of `stat()') to get the file information, in case the file is a symbolic link. If there's an error, it sets `ERRNO' and returns: /* file is first arg, array to hold results is second */ file = get_scalar_argument(0, FALSE); array = get_array_argument(1, FALSE); /* empty out the array */ assoc_clear(array); /* lstat the file, if error, set ERRNO and return */ (void) force_string(file); ret = lstat(file->stptr, & sbuf); if (ret < 0) { update_ERRNO(); return make_number((AWKNUM) ret); } Now comes the tedious part: filling in the array. Only a few of the calls are shown here, since they all follow the same pattern: /* fill in the array */ aptr = assoc_lookup(array, tmp = make_string("name", 4), FALSE); *aptr = dupnode(file); unref(tmp); aptr = assoc_lookup(array, tmp = make_string("mode", 4), FALSE); *aptr = make_number((AWKNUM) sbuf.st_mode); unref(tmp); aptr = assoc_lookup(array, tmp = make_string("pmode", 5), FALSE); pmode = format_mode(sbuf.st_mode); *aptr = make_string(pmode, strlen(pmode)); unref(tmp); When done, return the `lstat()' return value: return make_number((AWKNUM) ret); } Finally, it's necessary to provide the "glue" that loads the new function(s) into `gawk'. By convention, each library has a routine named `dlload()' that does the job: /* dlload --- load new builtins in this library */ NODE * dlload(NODE *tree, void *dl) { make_builtin("chdir", do_chdir, 1); make_builtin("stat", do_stat, 2); return make_number((AWKNUM) 0); } And that's it! As an exercise, consider adding functions to implement system calls such as `chown()', `chmod()', and `umask()'. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This version is edited slightly for presentation. See `extension/filefuncs.c' in the `gawk' distribution for the complete version. File: gawk.info, Node: Using Internal File Ops, Prev: Internal File Ops, Up: Sample Library C.3.3.3 Integrating the Extensions .................................. Now that the code is written, it must be possible to add it at runtime to the running `gawk' interpreter. First, the code must be compiled. Assuming that the functions are in a file named `filefuncs.c', and IDIR is the location of the `gawk' include files, the following steps create a GNU/Linux shared library: $ gcc -fPIC -shared -DHAVE_CONFIG_H -c -O -g -IIDIR filefuncs.c $ ld -o filefuncs.so -shared filefuncs.o Once the library exists, it is loaded by calling the `extension()' built-in function. This function takes two arguments: the name of the library to load and the name of a function to call when the library is first loaded. This function adds the new functions to `gawk'. It returns the value returned by the initialization function within the shared library: # file testff.awk BEGIN { extension("./filefuncs.so", "dlload") chdir(".") # no-op data[1] = 1 # force `data' to be an array print "Info for testff.awk" ret = stat("testff.awk", data) print "ret =", ret for (i in data) printf "data[\"%s\"] = %s\n", i, data[i] print "testff.awk modified:", strftime("%m %d %y %H:%M:%S", data["mtime"]) print "\nInfo for JUNK" ret = stat("JUNK", data) print "ret =", ret for (i in data) printf "data[\"%s\"] = %s\n", i, data[i] print "JUNK modified:", strftime("%m %d %y %H:%M:%S", data["mtime"]) } Here are the results of running the program: $ gawk -f testff.awk -| Info for testff.awk -| ret = 0 -| data["size"] = 607 -| data["ino"] = 14945891 -| data["name"] = testff.awk -| data["pmode"] = -rw-rw-r-- -| data["nlink"] = 1 -| data["atime"] = 1293993369 -| data["mtime"] = 1288520752 -| data["mode"] = 33204 -| data["blksize"] = 4096 -| data["dev"] = 2054 -| data["type"] = file -| data["gid"] = 500 -| data["uid"] = 500 -| data["blocks"] = 8 -| data["ctime"] = 1290113572 -| testff.awk modified: 10 31 10 12:25:52 -| -| Info for JUNK -| ret = -1 -| JUNK modified: 01 01 70 02:00:00 File: gawk.info, Node: Future Extensions, Prev: Dynamic Extensions, Up: Notes C.4 Probable Future Extensions ============================== AWK is a language similar to PERL, only considerably more elegant. Arnold Robbins Hey! Larry Wall This minor node briefly lists extensions and possible improvements that indicate the directions we are currently considering for `gawk'. The file `FUTURES' in the `gawk' distribution lists these extensions as well. Following is a list of probable future changes visible at the `awk' language level: Loadable module interface It is not clear that the `awk'-level interface to the modules facility is as good as it should be. The interface needs to be redesigned, particularly taking namespace issues into account, as well as possibly including issues such as library search path order and versioning. `RECLEN' variable for fixed-length records Along with `FIELDWIDTHS', this would speed up the processing of fixed-length records. `PROCINFO["RS"]' would be `"RS"' or `"RECLEN"', depending upon which kind of record processing is in effect. Databases It may be possible to map a GDBM/NDBM/SDBM file into an `awk' array. More `lint' warnings There are more things that could be checked for portability. Following is a list of probable improvements that will make `gawk''s source code easier to work with: Loadable module mechanics The current extension mechanism works (*note Dynamic Extensions::), but is rather primitive. It requires a fair amount of manual work to create and integrate a loadable module. Nor is the current mechanism as portable as might be desired. The GNU `libtool' package provides a number of features that would make using loadable modules much easier. `gawk' should be changed to use `libtool'. Loadable module internals The API to its internals that `gawk' "exports" should be revised. Too many things are needlessly exposed. A new API should be designed and implemented to make module writing easier. Better array subscript management `gawk''s management of array subscript storage could use revamping, so that using the same value to index multiple arrays only stores one copy of the index value. Finally, the programs in the test suite could use documenting in this Info file. *Note Additions::, if you are interested in tackling any of these projects. File: gawk.info, Node: Basic Concepts, Next: Glossary, Prev: Notes, Up: Top Appendix D Basic Programming Concepts ************************************* This major node attempts to define some of the basic concepts and terms that are used throughout the rest of this Info file. As this Info file is specifically about `awk', and not about computer programming in general, the coverage here is by necessity fairly cursory and simplistic. (If you need more background, there are many other introductory texts that you should refer to instead.) * Menu: * Basic High Level:: The high level view. * Basic Data Typing:: A very quick intro to data types. * Floating Point Issues:: Stuff to know about floating-point numbers. File: gawk.info, Node: Basic High Level, Next: Basic Data Typing, Up: Basic Concepts D.1 What a Program Does ======================= At the most basic level, the job of a program is to process some input data and produce results. _______ +------+ / \ +---------+ | Data | -----> < Program > -----> | Results | +------+ \_______/ +---------+ The "program" in the figure can be either a compiled program(1) (such as `ls'), or it may be "interpreted". In the latter case, a machine-executable program such as `awk' reads your program, and then uses the instructions in your program to process the data. When you write a program, it usually consists of the following, very basic set of steps: ______ +----------------+ / More \ No +----------+ | Initialization | -------> < Data > -------> | Clean Up | +----------------+ ^ \ ? / +----------+ | +--+-+ | | Yes | | | V | +---------+ +-----+ Process | +---------+ Initialization These are the things you do before actually starting to process data, such as checking arguments, initializing any data you need to work with, and so on. This step corresponds to `awk''s `BEGIN' rule (*note BEGIN/END::). If you were baking a cake, this might consist of laying out all the mixing bowls and the baking pan, and making sure you have all the ingredients that you need. Processing This is where the actual work is done. Your program reads data, one logical chunk at a time, and processes it as appropriate. In most programming languages, you have to manually manage the reading of data, checking to see if there is more each time you read a chunk. `awk''s pattern-action paradigm (*note Getting Started::) handles the mechanics of this for you. In baking a cake, the processing corresponds to the actual labor: breaking eggs, mixing the flour, water, and other ingredients, and then putting the cake into the oven. Clean Up Once you've processed all the data, you may have things you need to do before exiting. This step corresponds to `awk''s `END' rule (*note BEGIN/END::). After the cake comes out of the oven, you still have to wrap it in plastic wrap to keep anyone from tasting it, as well as wash the mixing bowls and utensils. An "algorithm" is a detailed set of instructions necessary to accomplish a task, or process data. It is much the same as a recipe for baking a cake. Programs implement algorithms. Often, it is up to you to design the algorithm and implement it, simultaneously. The "logical chunks" we talked about previously are called "records", similar to the records a company keeps on employees, a school keeps for students, or a doctor keeps for patients. Each record has many component parts, such as first and last names, date of birth, address, and so on. The component parts are referred to as the "fields" of the record. The act of reading data is termed "input", and that of generating results, not too surprisingly, is termed "output". They are often referred to together as "input/output," and even more often, as "I/O" for short. (You will also see "input" and "output" used as verbs.) `awk' manages the reading of data for you, as well as the breaking it up into records and fields. Your program's job is to tell `awk' what to do with the data. You do this by describing "patterns" in the data to look for, and "actions" to execute when those patterns are seen. This "data-driven" nature of `awk' programs usually makes them both easier to write and easier to read. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Compiled programs are typically written in lower-level languages such as C, C++, or Ada, and then translated, or "compiled", into a form that the computer can execute directly. File: gawk.info, Node: Basic Data Typing, Next: Floating Point Issues, Prev: Basic High Level, Up: Basic Concepts D.2 Data Values in a Computer ============================= In a program, you keep track of information and values in things called "variables". A variable is just a name for a given value, such as `first_name', `last_name', `address', and so on. `awk' has several predefined variables, and it has special names to refer to the current input record and the fields of the record. You may also group multiple associated values under one name, as an array. Data, particularly in `awk', consists of either numeric values, such as 42 or 3.1415927, or string values. String values are essentially anything that's not a number, such as a name. Strings are sometimes referred to as "character data", since they store the individual characters that comprise them. Individual variables, as well as numeric and string variables, are referred to as "scalar" values. Groups of values, such as arrays, are not scalars. Within computers, there are two kinds of numeric values: "integers" and "floating-point". In school, integer values were referred to as "whole" numbers--that is, numbers without any fractional part, such as 1, 42, or -17. The advantage to integer numbers is that they represent values exactly. The disadvantage is that their range is limited. On most systems, this range is -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647. However, many systems now support a range from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807. Integer values come in two flavors: "signed" and "unsigned". Signed values may be negative or positive, with the range of values just described. Unsigned values are always positive. On most systems, the range is from 0 to 4,294,967,295. However, many systems now support a range from 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615. Floating-point numbers represent what are called "real" numbers; i.e., those that do have a fractional part, such as 3.1415927. The advantage to floating-point numbers is that they can represent a much larger range of values. The disadvantage is that there are numbers that they cannot represent exactly. `awk' uses "double precision" floating-point numbers, which can hold more digits than "single precision" floating-point numbers. Floating-point issues are discussed more fully in *note Floating Point Issues::. At the very lowest level, computers store values as groups of binary digits, or "bits". Modern computers group bits into groups of eight, called "bytes". Advanced applications sometimes have to manipulate bits directly, and `gawk' provides functions for doing so. While you are probably used to the idea of a number without a value (i.e., zero), it takes a bit more getting used to the idea of zero-length character data. Nevertheless, such a thing exists. It is called the "null string". The null string is character data that has no value. In other words, it is empty. It is written in `awk' programs like this: `""'. Humans are used to working in decimal; i.e., base 10. In base 10, numbers go from 0 to 9, and then "roll over" into the next column. (Remember grade school? 42 is 4 times 10 plus 2.) There are other number bases though. Computers commonly use base 2 or "binary", base 8 or "octal", and base 16 or "hexadecimal". In binary, each column represents two times the value in the column to its right. Each column may contain either a 0 or a 1. Thus, binary 1010 represents 1 times 8, plus 0 times 4, plus 1 times 2, plus 0 times 1, or decimal 10. Octal and hexadecimal are discussed more in *note Nondecimal-numbers::. Programs are written in programming languages. Hundreds, if not thousands, of programming languages exist. One of the most popular is the C programming language. The C language had a very strong influence on the design of the `awk' language. There have been several versions of C. The first is often referred to as "K&R" C, after the initials of Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie, the authors of the first book on C. (Dennis Ritchie created the language, and Brian Kernighan was one of the creators of `awk'.) In the mid-1980s, an effort began to produce an international standard for C. This work culminated in 1989, with the production of the ANSI standard for C. This standard became an ISO standard in 1990. In 1999, a revised ISO C standard was approved and released. Where it makes sense, POSIX `awk' is compatible with 1999 ISO C. File: gawk.info, Node: Floating Point Issues, Prev: Basic Data Typing, Up: Basic Concepts D.3 Floating-Point Number Caveats ================================= As mentioned earlier, floating-point numbers represent what are called "real" numbers, i.e., those that have a fractional part. `awk' uses double precision floating-point numbers to represent all numeric values. This minor node describes some of the issues involved in using floating-point numbers. There is a very nice paper on floating-point arithmetic (http://www.validlab.com/goldberg/paper.pdf) by David Goldberg, "What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-point Arithmetic," `ACM Computing Surveys' *23*, 1 (1991-03), 5-48. This is worth reading if you are interested in the details, but it does require a background in computer science. * Menu: * String Conversion Precision:: The String Value Can Lie. * Unexpected Results:: Floating Point Numbers Are Not Abstract Numbers. * POSIX Floating Point Problems:: Standards Versus Existing Practice. File: gawk.info, Node: String Conversion Precision, Next: Unexpected Results, Up: Floating Point Issues D.3.1 The String Value Can Lie ------------------------------ Internally, `awk' keeps both the numeric value (double precision floating-point) and the string value for a variable. Separately, `awk' keeps track of what type the variable has (*note Typing and Comparison::), which plays a role in how variables are used in comparisons. It is important to note that the string value for a number may not reflect the full value (all the digits) that the numeric value actually contains. The following program (`values.awk') illustrates this: { sum = $1 + $2 # see it for what it is printf("sum = %.12g\n", sum) # use CONVFMT a = "<" sum ">" print "a =", a # use OFMT print "sum =", sum } This program shows the full value of the sum of `$1' and `$2' using `printf', and then prints the string values obtained from both automatic conversion (via `CONVFMT') and from printing (via `OFMT'). Here is what happens when the program is run: $ echo 3.654321 1.2345678 | awk -f values.awk -| sum = 4.8888888 -| a = <4.88889> -| sum = 4.88889 This makes it clear that the full numeric value is different from what the default string representations show. `CONVFMT''s default value is `"%.6g"', which yields a value with at least six significant digits. For some applications, you might want to change it to specify more precision. On most modern machines, most of the time, 17 digits is enough to capture a floating-point number's value exactly.(1) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Pathological cases can require up to 752 digits (!), but we doubt that you need to worry about this. File: gawk.info, Node: Unexpected Results, Next: POSIX Floating Point Problems, Prev: String Conversion Precision, Up: Floating Point Issues D.3.2 Floating Point Numbers Are Not Abstract Numbers ----------------------------------------------------- Unlike numbers in the abstract sense (such as what you studied in high school or college math), numbers stored in computers are limited in certain ways. They cannot represent an infinite number of digits, nor can they always represent things exactly. In particular, floating-point numbers cannot always represent values exactly. Here is an example: $ awk '{ printf("%010d\n", $1 * 100) }' 515.79 -| 0000051579 515.80 -| 0000051579 515.81 -| 0000051580 515.82 -| 0000051582 Ctrl-d This shows that some values can be represented exactly, whereas others are only approximated. This is not a "bug" in `awk', but simply an artifact of how computers represent numbers. Another peculiarity of floating-point numbers on modern systems is that they often have more than one representation for the number zero! In particular, it is possible to represent "minus zero" as well as regular, or "positive" zero. This example shows that negative and positive zero are distinct values when stored internally, but that they are in fact equal to each other, as well as to "regular" zero: $ gawk 'BEGIN { mz = -0 ; pz = 0 > printf "-0 = %g, +0 = %g, (-0 == +0) -> %d\n", mz, pz, mz == pz > printf "mz == 0 -> %d, pz == 0 -> %d\n", mz == 0, pz == 0 > }' -| -0 = -0, +0 = 0, (-0 == +0) -> 1 -| mz == 0 -> 1, pz == 0 -> 1 It helps to keep this in mind should you process numeric data that contains negative zero values; the fact that the zero is negative is noted and can affect comparisons. File: gawk.info, Node: POSIX Floating Point Problems, Prev: Unexpected Results, Up: Floating Point Issues D.3.3 Standards Versus Existing Practice ---------------------------------------- Historically, `awk' has converted any non-numeric looking string to the numeric value zero, when required. Furthermore, the original definition of the language and the original POSIX standards specified that `awk' only understands decimal numbers (base 10), and not octal (base 8) or hexadecimal numbers (base 16). Changes in the language of the 2001 and 2004 POSIX standard can be interpreted to imply that `awk' should support additional features. These features are: * Interpretation of floating point data values specified in hexadecimal notation (`0xDEADBEEF'). (Note: data values, _not_ source code constants.) * Support for the special IEEE 754 floating point values "Not A Number" (NaN), positive Infinity ("inf") and negative Infinity ("-inf"). In particular, the format for these values is as specified by the ISO 1999 C standard, which ignores case and can allow machine-dependent additional characters after the `nan' and allow either `inf' or `infinity'. The first problem is that both of these are clear changes to historical practice: * The `gawk' maintainer feels that supporting hexadecimal floating point values, in particular, is ugly, and was never intended by the original designers to be part of the language. * Allowing completely alphabetic strings to have valid numeric values is also a very severe departure from historical practice. The second problem is that the `gawk' maintainer feels that this interpretation of the standard, which requires a certain amount of "language lawyering" to arrive at in the first place, was not even intended by the standard developers. In other words, "we see how you got where you are, but we don't think that that's where you want to be." The 2008 POSIX standard added explicit wording to allow, but not require, that `awk' support hexadecimal floating point values and special values for "Not A Number" and infinity. Although the `gawk' maintainer continues to feel that providing those features is inadvisable, nevertheless, on systems that support IEEE floating point, it seems reasonable to provide _some_ way to support NaN and Infinity values. The solution implemented in `gawk' is as follows: * With the `--posix' command-line option, `gawk' becomes "hands off." String values are passed directly to the system library's `strtod()' function, and if it successfully returns a numeric value, that is what's used.(1) By definition, the results are not portable across different systems. They are also a little surprising: $ echo nanny | gawk --posix '{ print $1 + 0 }' -| nan $ echo 0xDeadBeef | gawk --posix '{ print $1 + 0 }' -| 3735928559 * Without `--posix', `gawk' interprets the four strings `+inf', `-inf', `+nan', and `-nan' specially, producing the corresponding special numeric values. The leading sign acts a signal to `gawk' (and the user) that the value is really numeric. Hexadecimal floating point is not supported (unless you also use `--non-decimal-data', which is _not_ recommended). For example: $ echo nanny | gawk '{ print $1 + 0 }' -| 0 $ echo +nan | gawk '{ print $1 + 0 }' -| nan $ echo 0xDeadBeef | gawk '{ print $1 + 0 }' -| 0 `gawk' does ignore case in the four special values. Thus `+nan' and `+NaN' are the same. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) You asked for it, you got it. File: gawk.info, Node: Glossary, Next: Copying, Prev: Basic Concepts, Up: Top Glossary ******** Action A series of `awk' statements attached to a rule. If the rule's pattern matches an input record, `awk' executes the rule's action. Actions are always enclosed in curly braces. (*Note Action Overview::.) Amazing `awk' Assembler Henry Spencer at the University of Toronto wrote a retargetable assembler completely as `sed' and `awk' scripts. It is thousands of lines long, including machine descriptions for several eight-bit microcomputers. It is a good example of a program that would have been better written in another language. You can get it from `http://awk.info/?awk100/aaa'. Ada A programming language originally defined by the U.S. Department of Defense for embedded programming. It was designed to enforce good Software Engineering practices. Amazingly Workable Formatter (`awf') Henry Spencer at the University of Toronto wrote a formatter that accepts a large subset of the `nroff -ms' and `nroff -man' formatting commands, using `awk' and `sh'. It is available from `http://awk.info/?tools/awf'. Anchor The regexp metacharacters `^' and `$', which force the match to the beginning or end of the string, respectively. ANSI The American National Standards Institute. This organization produces many standards, among them the standards for the C and C++ programming languages. These standards often become international standards as well. See also "ISO." Array A grouping of multiple values under the same name. Most languages just provide sequential arrays. `awk' provides associative arrays. Assertion A statement in a program that a condition is true at this point in the program. Useful for reasoning about how a program is supposed to behave. Assignment An `awk' expression that changes the value of some `awk' variable or data object. An object that you can assign to is called an "lvalue". The assigned values are called "rvalues". *Note Assignment Ops::. Associative Array Arrays in which the indices may be numbers or strings, not just sequential integers in a fixed range. `awk' Language The language in which `awk' programs are written. `awk' Program An `awk' program consists of a series of "patterns" and "actions", collectively known as "rules". For each input record given to the program, the program's rules are all processed in turn. `awk' programs may also contain function definitions. `awk' Script Another name for an `awk' program. Bash The GNU version of the standard shell (the Bourne-Again SHell). See also "Bourne Shell." BBS See "Bulletin Board System." Bit Short for "Binary Digit." All values in computer memory ultimately reduce to binary digits: values that are either zero or one. Groups of bits may be interpreted differently--as integers, floating-point numbers, character data, addresses of other memory objects, or other data. `awk' lets you work with floating-point numbers and strings. `gawk' lets you manipulate bit values with the built-in functions described in *note Bitwise Functions::. Computers are often defined by how many bits they use to represent integer values. Typical systems are 32-bit systems, but 64-bit systems are becoming increasingly popular, and 16-bit systems have essentially disappeared. Boolean Expression Named after the English mathematician Boole. See also "Logical Expression." Bourne Shell The standard shell (`/bin/sh') on Unix and Unix-like systems, originally written by Steven R. Bourne. Many shells (Bash, `ksh', `pdksh', `zsh') are generally upwardly compatible with the Bourne shell. Built-in Function The `awk' language provides built-in functions that perform various numerical, I/O-related, and string computations. Examples are `sqrt()' (for the square root of a number) and `substr()' (for a substring of a string). `gawk' provides functions for timestamp management, bit manipulation, array sorting, type checking, and runtime string translation. (*Note Built-in::.) Built-in Variable `ARGC', `ARGV', `CONVFMT', `ENVIRON', `FILENAME', `FNR', `FS', `NF', `NR', `OFMT', `OFS', `ORS', `RLENGTH', `RSTART', `RS', and `SUBSEP' are the variables that have special meaning to `awk'. In addition, `ARGIND', `BINMODE', `ERRNO', `FIELDWIDTHS', `FPAT', `IGNORECASE', `LINT', `PROCINFO', `RT', and `TEXTDOMAIN' are the variables that have special meaning to `gawk'. Changing some of them affects `awk''s running environment. (*Note Built-in Variables::.) Braces See "Curly Braces." Bulletin Board System A computer system allowing users to log in and read and/or leave messages for other users of the system, much like leaving paper notes on a bulletin board. C The system programming language that most GNU software is written in. The `awk' programming language has C-like syntax, and this Info file points out similarities between `awk' and C when appropriate. In general, `gawk' attempts to be as similar to the 1990 version of ISO C as makes sense. C++ A popular object-oriented programming language derived from C. Character Set The set of numeric codes used by a computer system to represent the characters (letters, numbers, punctuation, etc.) of a particular country or place. The most common character set in use today is ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). Many European countries use an extension of ASCII known as ISO-8859-1 (ISO Latin-1). The Unicode character set (http://www.unicode.org) is becoming increasingly popular and standard, and is particularly widely used on GNU/Linux systems. CHEM A preprocessor for `pic' that reads descriptions of molecules and produces `pic' input for drawing them. It was written in `awk' by Brian Kernighan and Jon Bentley, and is available from `http://netlib.sandia.gov/netlib/typesetting/chem.gz'. Coprocess A subordinate program with which two-way communications is possible. Compiler A program that translates human-readable source code into machine-executable object code. The object code is then executed directly by the computer. See also "Interpreter." Compound Statement A series of `awk' statements, enclosed in curly braces. Compound statements may be nested. (*Note Statements::.) Concatenation Concatenating two strings means sticking them together, one after another, producing a new string. For example, the string `foo' concatenated with the string `bar' gives the string `foobar'. (*Note Concatenation::.) Conditional Expression An expression using the `?:' ternary operator, such as `EXPR1 ? EXPR2 : EXPR3'. The expression EXPR1 is evaluated; if the result is true, the value of the whole expression is the value of EXPR2; otherwise the value is EXPR3. In either case, only one of EXPR2 and EXPR3 is evaluated. (*Note Conditional Exp::.) Comparison Expression A relation that is either true or false, such as `a < b'. Comparison expressions are used in `if', `while', `do', and `for' statements, and in patterns to select which input records to process. (*Note Typing and Comparison::.) Curly Braces The characters `{' and `}'. Curly braces are used in `awk' for delimiting actions, compound statements, and function bodies. Dark Corner An area in the language where specifications often were (or still are) not clear, leading to unexpected or undesirable behavior. Such areas are marked in this Info file with "(d.c.)" in the text and are indexed under the heading "dark corner." Data Driven A description of `awk' programs, where you specify the data you are interested in processing, and what to do when that data is seen. Data Objects These are numbers and strings of characters. Numbers are converted into strings and vice versa, as needed. (*Note Conversion::.) Deadlock The situation in which two communicating processes are each waiting for the other to perform an action. Debugger A program used to help developers remove "bugs" from (de-bug) their programs. Double Precision An internal representation of numbers that can have fractional parts. Double precision numbers keep track of more digits than do single precision numbers, but operations on them are sometimes more expensive. This is the way `awk' stores numeric values. It is the C type `double'. Dynamic Regular Expression A dynamic regular expression is a regular expression written as an ordinary expression. It could be a string constant, such as `"foo"', but it may also be an expression whose value can vary. (*Note Computed Regexps::.) Environment A collection of strings, of the form NAME`='VAL, that each program has available to it. Users generally place values into the environment in order to provide information to various programs. Typical examples are the environment variables `HOME' and `PATH'. Empty String See "Null String." Epoch The date used as the "beginning of time" for timestamps. Time values in most systems are represented as seconds since the epoch, with library functions available for converting these values into standard date and time formats. The epoch on Unix and POSIX systems is 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC. See also "GMT" and "UTC." Escape Sequences A special sequence of characters used for describing nonprinting characters, such as `\n' for newline or `\033' for the ASCII ESC (Escape) character. (*Note Escape Sequences::.) Extension An additional feature or change to a programming language or utility not defined by that language's or utility's standard. `gawk' has (too) many extensions over POSIX `awk'. FDL See "Free Documentation License." Field When `awk' reads an input record, it splits the record into pieces separated by whitespace (or by a separator regexp that you can change by setting the built-in variable `FS'). Such pieces are called fields. If the pieces are of fixed length, you can use the built-in variable `FIELDWIDTHS' to describe their lengths. If you wish to specify the contents of fields instead of the field separator, you can use the built-in variable `FPAT' to do so. (*Note Field Separators::, *note Constant Size::, and *note Splitting By Content::.) Flag A variable whose truth value indicates the existence or nonexistence of some condition. Floating-Point Number Often referred to in mathematical terms as a "rational" or real number, this is just a number that can have a fractional part. See also "Double Precision" and "Single Precision." Format Format strings are used to control the appearance of output in the `strftime()' and `sprintf()' functions, and are used in the `printf' statement as well. Also, data conversions from numbers to strings are controlled by the format strings contained in the built-in variables `CONVFMT' and `OFMT'. (*Note Control Letters::.) Free Documentation License This document describes the terms under which this Info file is published and may be copied. (*Note GNU Free Documentation License::.) Function A specialized group of statements used to encapsulate general or program-specific tasks. `awk' has a number of built-in functions, and also allows you to define your own. (*Note Functions::.) FSF See "Free Software Foundation." Free Software Foundation A nonprofit organization dedicated to the production and distribution of freely distributable software. It was founded by Richard M. Stallman, the author of the original Emacs editor. GNU Emacs is the most widely used version of Emacs today. `gawk' The GNU implementation of `awk'. General Public License This document describes the terms under which `gawk' and its source code may be distributed. (*Note Copying::.) GMT "Greenwich Mean Time." This is the old term for UTC. It is the time of day used internally for Unix and POSIX systems. See also "Epoch" and "UTC." GNU "GNU's not Unix". An on-going project of the Free Software Foundation to create a complete, freely distributable, POSIX-compliant computing environment. GNU/Linux A variant of the GNU system using the Linux kernel, instead of the Free Software Foundation's Hurd kernel. The Linux kernel is a stable, efficient, full-featured clone of Unix that has been ported to a variety of architectures. It is most popular on PC-class systems, but runs well on a variety of other systems too. The Linux kernel source code is available under the terms of the GNU General Public License, which is perhaps its most important aspect. GPL See "General Public License." Hexadecimal Base 16 notation, where the digits are `0'-`9' and `A'-`F', with `A' representing 10, `B' representing 11, and so on, up to `F' for 15. Hexadecimal numbers are written in C using a leading `0x', to indicate their base. Thus, `0x12' is 18 (1 times 16 plus 2). *Note Nondecimal-numbers::. I/O Abbreviation for "Input/Output," the act of moving data into and/or out of a running program. Input Record A single chunk of data that is read in by `awk'. Usually, an `awk' input record consists of one line of text. (*Note Records::.) Integer A whole number, i.e., a number that does not have a fractional part. Internationalization The process of writing or modifying a program so that it can use multiple languages without requiring further source code changes. Interpreter A program that reads human-readable source code directly, and uses the instructions in it to process data and produce results. `awk' is typically (but not always) implemented as an interpreter. See also "Compiler." Interval Expression A component of a regular expression that lets you specify repeated matches of some part of the regexp. Interval expressions were not originally available in `awk' programs. ISO The International Standards Organization. This organization produces international standards for many things, including programming languages, such as C and C++. In the computer arena, important standards like those for C, C++, and POSIX become both American national and ISO international standards simultaneously. This Info file refers to Standard C as "ISO C" throughout. Java A modern programming language originally developed by Sun Microsystems (now Oracle) supporting Object-Oriented programming. Although usually implemented by compiling to the instructions for a standard virtual machine (the JVM), the language can be compiled to native code. Keyword In the `awk' language, a keyword is a word that has special meaning. Keywords are reserved and may not be used as variable names. `gawk''s keywords are: `BEGIN', `BEGINFILE', `END', `ENDFILE', `break', `case', `continue', `default' `delete', `do...while', `else', `exit', `for...in', `for', `function', `func', `if', `nextfile', `next', `switch', and `while'. Lesser General Public License This document describes the terms under which binary library archives or shared objects, and their source code may be distributed. Linux See "GNU/Linux." LGPL See "Lesser General Public License." Localization The process of providing the data necessary for an internationalized program to work in a particular language. Logical Expression An expression using the operators for logic, AND, OR, and NOT, written `&&', `||', and `!' in `awk'. Often called Boolean expressions, after the mathematician who pioneered this kind of mathematical logic. Lvalue An expression that can appear on the left side of an assignment operator. In most languages, lvalues can be variables or array elements. In `awk', a field designator can also be used as an lvalue. Matching The act of testing a string against a regular expression. If the regexp describes the contents of the string, it is said to "match" it. Metacharacters Characters used within a regexp that do not stand for themselves. Instead, they denote regular expression operations, such as repetition, grouping, or alternation. No-op An operation that does nothing. Null String A string with no characters in it. It is represented explicitly in `awk' programs by placing two double quote characters next to each other (`""'). It can appear in input data by having two successive occurrences of the field separator appear next to each other. Number A numeric-valued data object. Modern `awk' implementations use double precision floating-point to represent numbers. Ancient `awk' implementations used single precision floating-point. Octal Base-eight notation, where the digits are `0'-`7'. Octal numbers are written in C using a leading `0', to indicate their base. Thus, `013' is 11 (one times 8 plus 3). *Note Nondecimal-numbers::. P1003.1, P1003.2 See "POSIX." Pattern Patterns tell `awk' which input records are interesting to which rules. A pattern is an arbitrary conditional expression against which input is tested. If the condition is satisfied, the pattern is said to "match" the input record. A typical pattern might compare the input record against a regular expression. (*Note Pattern Overview::.) POSIX The name for a series of standards that specify a Portable Operating System interface. The "IX" denotes the Unix heritage of these standards. The main standard of interest for `awk' users is `IEEE Standard for Information Technology, Standard 1003.1-2008'. The 2008 POSIX standard can be found online at `http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/'. Precedence The order in which operations are performed when operators are used without explicit parentheses. Private Variables and/or functions that are meant for use exclusively by library functions and not for the main `awk' program. Special care must be taken when naming such variables and functions. (*Note Library Names::.) Range (of input lines) A sequence of consecutive lines from the input file(s). A pattern can specify ranges of input lines for `awk' to process or it can specify single lines. (*Note Pattern Overview::.) Recursion When a function calls itself, either directly or indirectly. As long as this is not clear, refer to the entry for "recursion." If this is clear, stop, and proceed to the next entry. Redirection Redirection means performing input from something other than the standard input stream, or performing output to something other than the standard output stream. You can redirect input to the `getline' statement using the `<', `|', and `|&' operators. You can redirect the output of the `print' and `printf' statements to a file or a system command, using the `>', `>>', `|', and `|&' operators. (*Note Getline::, and *note Redirection::.) Regexp See "Regular Expression." Regular Expression A regular expression ("regexp" for short) is a pattern that denotes a set of strings, possibly an infinite set. For example, the regular expression `R.*xp' matches any string starting with the letter `R' and ending with the letters `xp'. In `awk', regular expressions are used in patterns and in conditional expressions. Regular expressions may contain escape sequences. (*Note Regexp::.) Regular Expression Constant A regular expression constant is a regular expression written within slashes, such as `/foo/'. This regular expression is chosen when you write the `awk' program and cannot be changed during its execution. (*Note Regexp Usage::.) Rule A segment of an `awk' program that specifies how to process single input records. A rule consists of a "pattern" and an "action". `awk' reads an input record; then, for each rule, if the input record satisfies the rule's pattern, `awk' executes the rule's action. Otherwise, the rule does nothing for that input record. Rvalue A value that can appear on the right side of an assignment operator. In `awk', essentially every expression has a value. These values are rvalues. Scalar A single value, be it a number or a string. Regular variables are scalars; arrays and functions are not. Search Path In `gawk', a list of directories to search for `awk' program source files. In the shell, a list of directories to search for executable programs. Seed The initial value, or starting point, for a sequence of random numbers. `sed' See "Stream Editor." Shell The command interpreter for Unix and POSIX-compliant systems. The shell works both interactively, and as a programming language for batch files, or shell scripts. Short-Circuit The nature of the `awk' logical operators `&&' and `||'. If the value of the entire expression is determinable from evaluating just the lefthand side of these operators, the righthand side is not evaluated. (*Note Boolean Ops::.) Side Effect A side effect occurs when an expression has an effect aside from merely producing a value. Assignment expressions, increment and decrement expressions, and function calls have side effects. (*Note Assignment Ops::.) Single Precision An internal representation of numbers that can have fractional parts. Single precision numbers keep track of fewer digits than do double precision numbers, but operations on them are sometimes less expensive in terms of CPU time. This is the type used by some very old versions of `awk' to store numeric values. It is the C type `float'. Space The character generated by hitting the space bar on the keyboard. Special File A file name interpreted internally by `gawk', instead of being handed directly to the underlying operating system--for example, `/dev/stderr'. (*Note Special Files::.) Stream Editor A program that reads records from an input stream and processes them one or more at a time. This is in contrast with batch programs, which may expect to read their input files in entirety before starting to do anything, as well as with interactive programs which require input from the user. String A datum consisting of a sequence of characters, such as `I am a string'. Constant strings are written with double quotes in the `awk' language and may contain escape sequences. (*Note Escape Sequences::.) Tab The character generated by hitting the `TAB' key on the keyboard. It usually expands to up to eight spaces upon output. Text Domain A unique name that identifies an application. Used for grouping messages that are translated at runtime into the local language. Timestamp A value in the "seconds since the epoch" format used by Unix and POSIX systems. Used for the `gawk' functions `mktime()', `strftime()', and `systime()'. See also "Epoch" and "UTC." Unix A computer operating system originally developed in the early 1970's at AT&T Bell Laboratories. It initially became popular in universities around the world and later moved into commercial environments as a software development system and network server system. There are many commercial versions of Unix, as well as several work-alike systems whose source code is freely available (such as GNU/Linux, NetBSD (http://www.netbsd.org), FreeBSD (http://www.freebsd.org), and OpenBSD (http://www.openbsd.org)). UTC The accepted abbreviation for "Universal Coordinated Time." This is standard time in Greenwich, England, which is used as a reference time for day and date calculations. See also "Epoch" and "GMT." Whitespace A sequence of space, TAB, or newline characters occurring inside an input record or a string. File: gawk.info, Node: Copying, Next: GNU Free Documentation License, Prev: Glossary, Up: Top GNU General Public License ************************** Version 3, 29 June 2007 Copyright (C) 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. `http://fsf.org/' Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. Preamble ======== The GNU General Public License is a free, copyleft license for software and other kinds of works. The licenses for most software and other practical works are designed to take away your freedom to share and change the works. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change all versions of a program--to make sure it remains free software for all its users. We, the Free Software Foundation, use the GNU General Public License for most of our software; it applies also to any other work released this way by its authors. You can apply it to your programs, too. When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for them if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs, and that you know you can do these things. To protect your rights, we need to prevent others from denying you these rights or asking you to surrender the rights. Therefore, you have certain responsibilities if you distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it: responsibilities to respect the freedom of others. For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a fee, you must pass on to the recipients the same freedoms that you received. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these terms so they know their rights. Developers that use the GNU GPL protect your rights with two steps: (1) assert copyright on the software, and (2) offer you this License giving you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify it. For the developers' and authors' protection, the GPL clearly explains that there is no warranty for this free software. For both users' and authors' sake, the GPL requires that modified versions be marked as changed, so that their problems will not be attributed erroneously to authors of previous versions. Some devices are designed to deny users access to install or run modified versions of the software inside them, although the manufacturer can do so. This is fundamentally incompatible with the aim of protecting users' freedom to change the software. The systematic pattern of such abuse occurs in the area of products for individuals to use, which is precisely where it is most unacceptable. Therefore, we have designed this version of the GPL to prohibit the practice for those products. If such problems arise substantially in other domains, we stand ready to extend this provision to those domains in future versions of the GPL, as needed to protect the freedom of users. Finally, every program is threatened constantly by software patents. States should not allow patents to restrict development and use of software on general-purpose computers, but in those that do, we wish to avoid the special danger that patents applied to a free program could make it effectively proprietary. To prevent this, the GPL assures that patents cannot be used to render the program non-free. The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modification follow. TERMS AND CONDITIONS ==================== 0. Definitions. "This License" refers to version 3 of the GNU General Public License. "Copyright" also means copyright-like laws that apply to other kinds of works, such as semiconductor masks. "The Program" refers to any copyrightable work licensed under this License. Each licensee is addressed as "you". "Licensees" and "recipients" may be individuals or organizations. To "modify" a work means to copy from or adapt all or part of the work in a fashion requiring copyright permission, other than the making of an exact copy. The resulting work is called a "modified version" of the earlier work or a work "based on" the earlier work. A "covered work" means either the unmodified Program or a work based on the Program. To "propagate" a work means to do anything with it that, without permission, would make you directly or secondarily liable for infringement under applicable copyright law, except executing it on a computer or modifying a private copy. Propagation includes copying, distribution (with or without modification), making available to the public, and in some countries other activities as well. To "convey" a work means any kind of propagation that enables other parties to make or receive copies. Mere interaction with a user through a computer network, with no transfer of a copy, is not conveying. An interactive user interface displays "Appropriate Legal Notices" to the extent that it includes a convenient and prominently visible feature that (1) displays an appropriate copyright notice, and (2) tells the user that there is no warranty for the work (except to the extent that warranties are provided), that licensees may convey the work under this License, and how to view a copy of this License. If the interface presents a list of user commands or options, such as a menu, a prominent item in the list meets this criterion. 1. Source Code. The "source code" for a work means the preferred form of the work for making modifications to it. "Object code" means any non-source form of a work. 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The Corresponding Source for a work in source code form is that same work. 2. Basic Permissions. All rights granted under this License are granted for the term of copyright on the Program, and are irrevocable provided the stated conditions are met. This License explicitly affirms your unlimited permission to run the unmodified Program. The output from running a covered work is covered by this License only if the output, given its content, constitutes a covered work. This License acknowledges your rights of fair use or other equivalent, as provided by copyright law. You may make, run and propagate covered works that you do not convey, without conditions so long as your license otherwise remains in force. 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Regardless of what server hosts the Corresponding Source, you remain obligated to ensure that it is available for as long as needed to satisfy these requirements. e. Convey the object code using peer-to-peer transmission, provided you inform other peers where the object code and Corresponding Source of the work are being offered to the general public at no charge under subsection 6d. A separable portion of the object code, whose source code is excluded from the Corresponding Source as a System Library, need not be included in conveying the object code work. A "User Product" is either (1) a "consumer product", which means any tangible personal property which is normally used for personal, family, or household purposes, or (2) anything designed or sold for incorporation into a dwelling. In determining whether a product is a consumer product, doubtful cases shall be resolved in favor of coverage. 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Access to a network may be denied when the modification itself materially and adversely affects the operation of the network or violates the rules and protocols for communication across the network. Corresponding Source conveyed, and Installation Information provided, in accord with this section must be in a format that is publicly documented (and with an implementation available to the public in source code form), and must require no special password or key for unpacking, reading or copying. 7. Additional Terms. "Additional permissions" are terms that supplement the terms of this License by making exceptions from one or more of its conditions. Additional permissions that are applicable to the entire Program shall be treated as though they were included in this License, to the extent that they are valid under applicable law. If additional permissions apply only to part of the Program, that part may be used separately under those permissions, but the entire Program remains governed by this License without regard to the additional permissions. When you convey a copy of a covered work, you may at your option remove any additional permissions from that copy, or from any part of it. (Additional permissions may be written to require their own removal in certain cases when you modify the work.) You may place additional permissions on material, added by you to a covered work, for which you have or can give appropriate copyright permission. Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, for material you add to a covered work, you may (if authorized by the copyright holders of that material) supplement the terms of this License with terms: a. Disclaiming warranty or limiting liability differently from the terms of sections 15 and 16 of this License; or b. Requiring preservation of specified reasonable legal notices or author attributions in that material or in the Appropriate Legal Notices displayed by works containing it; or c. Prohibiting misrepresentation of the origin of that material, or requiring that modified versions of such material be marked in reasonable ways as different from the original version; or d. Limiting the use for publicity purposes of names of licensors or authors of the material; or e. Declining to grant rights under trademark law for use of some trade names, trademarks, or service marks; or f. Requiring indemnification of licensors and authors of that material by anyone who conveys the material (or modified versions of it) with contractual assumptions of liability to the recipient, for any liability that these contractual assumptions directly impose on those licensors and authors. All other non-permissive additional terms are considered "further restrictions" within the meaning of section 10. If the Program as you received it, or any part of it, contains a notice stating that it is governed by this License along with a term that is a further restriction, you may remove that term. If a license document contains a further restriction but permits relicensing or conveying under this License, you may add to a covered work material governed by the terms of that license document, provided that the further restriction does not survive such relicensing or conveying. If you add terms to a covered work in accord with this section, you must place, in the relevant source files, a statement of the additional terms that apply to those files, or a notice indicating where to find the applicable terms. Additional terms, permissive or non-permissive, may be stated in the form of a separately written license, or stated as exceptions; the above requirements apply either way. 8. Termination. You may not propagate or modify a covered work except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to propagate or modify it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License (including any patent licenses granted under the third paragraph of section 11). However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation. Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice. Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new licenses for the same material under section 10. 9. Acceptance Not Required for Having Copies. You are not required to accept this License in order to receive or run a copy of the Program. Ancillary propagation of a covered work occurring solely as a consequence of using peer-to-peer transmission to receive a copy likewise does not require acceptance. However, nothing other than this License grants you permission to propagate or modify any covered work. These actions infringe copyright if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or propagating a covered work, you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so. 10. Automatic Licensing of Downstream Recipients. Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensors, to run, modify and propagate that work, subject to this License. You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties with this License. An "entity transaction" is a transaction transferring control of an organization, or substantially all assets of one, or subdividing an organization, or merging organizations. If propagation of a covered work results from an entity transaction, each party to that transaction who receives a copy of the work also receives whatever licenses to the work the party's predecessor in interest had or could give under the previous paragraph, plus a right to possession of the Corresponding Source of the work from the predecessor in interest, if the predecessor has it or can get it with reasonable efforts. You may not impose any further restrictions on the exercise of the rights granted or affirmed under this License. For example, you may not impose a license fee, royalty, or other charge for exercise of rights granted under this License, and you may not initiate litigation (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that any patent claim is infringed by making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the Program or any portion of it. 11. Patents. A "contributor" is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this License of the Program or a work on which the Program is based. The work thus licensed is called the contributor's "contributor version". A contributor's "essential patent claims" are all patent claims owned or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or hereafter acquired, that would be infringed by some manner, permitted by this License, of making, using, or selling its contributor version, but do not include claims that would be infringed only as a consequence of further modification of the contributor version. For purposes of this definition, "control" includes the right to grant patent sublicenses in a manner consistent with the requirements of this License. Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free patent license under the contributor's essential patent claims, to make, use, sell, offer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and propagate the contents of its contributor version. In the following three paragraphs, a "patent license" is any express agreement or commitment, however denominated, not to enforce a patent (such as an express permission to practice a patent or covenant not to sue for patent infringement). To "grant" such a patent license to a party means to make such an agreement or commitment not to enforce a patent against the party. If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying on a patent license, and the Corresponding Source of the work is not available for anyone to copy, free of charge and under the terms of this License, through a publicly available network server or other readily accessible means, then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benefit of the patent license for this particular work, or (3) arrange, in a manner consistent with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent license to downstream recipients. "Knowingly relying" means you have actual knowledge that, but for the patent license, your conveying the covered work in a country, or your recipient's use of the covered work in a country, would infringe one or more identifiable patents in that country that you have reason to believe are valid. If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or arrangement, you convey, or propagate by procuring conveyance of, a covered work, and grant a patent license to some of the parties receiving the covered work authorizing them to use, propagate, modify or convey a specific copy of the covered work, then the patent license you grant is automatically extended to all recipients of the covered work and works based on it. A patent license is "discriminatory" if it does not include within the scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is conditioned on the non-exercise of one or more of the rights that are specifically granted under this License. You may not convey a covered work if you are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the business of distributing software, under which you make payment to the third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the work, and under which the third party grants, to any of the parties who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license (a) in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by you (or copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in connection with specific products or compilations that contain the covered work, unless you entered into that arrangement, or that patent license was granted, prior to 28 March 2007. Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law. 12. No Surrender of Others' Freedom. If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot convey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from those to whom you convey the Program, the only way you could satisfy both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely from conveying the Program. 13. Use with the GNU Affero General Public License. Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permission to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed under version 3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into a single combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work, but the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License, section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the combination as such. 14. Revised Versions of this License. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that numbered version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of the GNU General Public License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of the GNU General Public License can be used, that proxy's public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Program. Later license versions may give you additional or different permissions. However, no additional obligations are imposed on any author or copyright holder as a result of your choosing to follow a later version. 15. Disclaimer of Warranty. THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM "AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. 16. Limitation of Liability. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16. If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above cannot be given local legal effect according to their terms, reviewing courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the Program, unless a warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a copy of the Program in return for a fee. END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS =========================== How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs ============================================= If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms. To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively state the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. ONE LINE TO GIVE THE PROGRAM'S NAME AND A BRIEF IDEA OF WHAT IT DOES. Copyright (C) YEAR NAME OF AUTHOR This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program. If not, see `http://www.gnu.org/licenses/'. Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode: PROGRAM Copyright (C) YEAR NAME OF AUTHOR This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your program's commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you would use an "about box". You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program, if necessary. For more information on this, and how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see `http://www.gnu.org/licenses/'. The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But first, please read `http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html'. File: gawk.info, Node: GNU Free Documentation License, Next: Index, Prev: Copying, Up: Top GNU Free Documentation License ****************************** Version 1.3, 3 November 2008 Copyright (C) 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. `http://fsf.org/' Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others. This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference. 1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The "Document", below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another language. A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none. The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque". Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only. The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text. The "publisher" means any person or entity that distributes copies of the Document to the public. A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title" of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition. The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this License. 2. VERBATIM COPYING You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3. You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies. 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects. If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public. It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document. 4. MODIFICATIONS You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version: A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission. B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement. C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher. D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document. E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices. F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice. H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence. J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission. K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein. L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles. M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version. N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements" or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section. O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles. You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard. You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one. The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version. 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers. The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work. In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements." 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects. You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document. If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate. 8. TRANSLATION Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9. TERMINATION You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation. Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice. Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does not give you any rights to use it. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See `http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/'. Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License can be used, that proxy's public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document. 11. RELICENSING "Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site" (or "MMC Site") means any World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A "Massive Multiauthor Collaboration" (or "MMC") contained in the site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site. "CC-BY-SA" means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license published by that same organization. "Incorporate" means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part of another Document. An MMC is "eligible for relicensing" if it is licensed under this License, and if all works that were first published under this License somewhere other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008. The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing. ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents ==================================================== To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page: Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation License''. If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the "with...Texts." line with this: with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST. If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation. If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software. File: gawk.info, Node: Index, Prev: GNU Free Documentation License, Up: Top Index *****